The program also demonstrates that playing second is advantageous
"It does that by thinking of all possible decision points, and every possible action [that could take place from those points]," explains Bowling. For example, the program might think: "what if I raise here, instead of playing randomly, how much more money or less money would I win?" If it decides to play randomly, and loses money, then it goes back and computes how much money it would have won if it had raised instead. That amount then gets stored as a regret value, he says. "And so it computes that regret number for every single action, of every single place that it gets to make that decision." So, every time it plays a hand, the program shifts its strategy so that it starts to do what it regretted not doing in past games more often. And, as it updated itself, Cepheus eventually approached what Bowling calls "perfect play."
"we stopped at this point because we can’t tell it apart from being perfect."
The training phase took 70 days, and a cluster of 200 computers, each armed with 32 GB of ram and 24 central processing units, Johanson says. At the end of those 70 days, Cepheus’ game was nearly perfect. "We could continue to train it, and it would continue to get better," Bowling says. "But we stopped at this point because we can’t tell it apart from being perfect." Even if the program spent a lifetime in training, he says, getting it any closer to perfect really wouldn’t have much value — "other than the academic novelty." In short, training Cepheus further wouldn’t change how successful the program is in any noticeable way.
Cepheus was also able to demonstrate that the player who deals the cards, and therefore goes second has a tiny advantage over the other player, before any of the cards are dealt. "We actually can now prove that the dealer has an advantage of what we call '88 millablinds' per game," Johanson says. "That's .088 of a big blind per game."
"This is, to my knowledge, the largest imperfect-information game essentially solved to date," says Tuomas Sandholm, a computer scientist at Carnegie Mellon University who didn’t participate in the study, in a
about the study also in Science today. It’s also "the first one competitively played by humans that has now been essentially solved."
11 years of poker
Bowling is part of a team of researchers that first started tackling the idea of a poker program in 2003. Back then, he says, creating a program that could solve a game of two-player limit Texas hold’em was the furthest thing from their minds. "I don’t think anyone was dreaming that we were going to solve this game." Instead, they worked on developing a program that could defeat top players at heads-up limit poker, "the simplest game of poker humans play," Bowling says. In 2008, they were successful. That program, called Polaris,
Phil "The Unabomber" Laak and Ali Eslami a year prior, but when the researchers improved it, it .
"We actually built in some adaptation qualities into it so it could try to take advantages of human weaknesses," Bowling says — something that Cepheus doesn’t do because it tries to play perfectly and therefore avoids having to adapt to its opponents.
"the largest imperfect-information game essentially solved to date."
After Polaris beat the top players, Bowling and his team had to make a decision about what to do next. Were they going to try to solve two-player limit Texas hold’em, a more complicated game? "Someone did a back of the envelope calculation and it came out that we would need four petabytes of disk space [1,000,000 gigabytes], just to write down the solution after we solved the game," Bowling says. "At the time, I said, 'well I guess we can’t solve it then, so let’s move on.'" But other researchers
buying petabyte disks was possible, after all.
In the end, solving the game didn’t take four petabytes of disk space. "We learned some things along the way," Bowling says, "like you can take all the hearts and spades and swap as suits," he says, which dropped them down to 520 terabytes. They also figured out how to
compress the data, so that the program could access the strategy quickly. "There’s a lot of these technical balancing acts," Bowling says. "If the game had been a little bit bigger and things had been just a little bit slower, we might not have able to pull this off."
Now that the researchers have solved two-player limit Texas hold’em, they want to work on other forms of poker, like heads-up no limit poker. The challenges of the game means that they probably won’t be able to solve it, but they might be able to produce a program that can beat the world’s best human players. The same goes for a three-player game of limit Texas hold’em. "There’s no strategy in a three player game that can guarantee that it doesn’t lose because it’s actually possible that the other two players in the game might gang up on it." Collusion is illegal in a competitive game, but it’s hard to quantify what that actually means, Bowling says. Some people might do it without even realizing it. Still, he says, when they have tested Cepheus against two other computers, and it appears to produce good strategies. "We just can’t say as much about whether it produces optimal strategies," Bowling says.
It could help governments or companies optimize their security strategies
Cepheus could end up doing a lot more than playing poker. The researchers are already thinking of ways it could help governments or companies optimize their security strategies and make then "unexploitable," Bowling says. Cepheus could, for instance, schedule patrols or checkpoints in such a ways as to foil an adversary that might try to exploit a defense strategy. The program could also be used to help doctors tweak treatments for diabetic patients. If their diet or their activity level changes, the program could compute the optimal response all while taking into account any number of uncertainties.
"I’m intrigued by all this," Bowling says. "Maybe it’s because we’ve hit this milestone that I really want to see them have applications outside of the poker space." Of course, Bowling's desire to move away from the game might have something to do with his opinion of poker. "I don’t have the patience to play poker," he says. "I actually kind of find it boring." The computer scientist has only played poker once over the last year. "The only time I’ve played poker in the last twelve months was when I was testing our current program’s interface," Bowling says. "I played about a hundred hands."
To check out Cepheus’ strategy or to play against it,.
Screens, technology, and cyberpunk culture
The first three were just shipped to customers
This isn’t the first time Trump has repeated what he’s read on the internet
It currently holds a 3.6 user rating
This could be bad news for the nest
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汇总链接（要求详细说明）：【OG12-(19&20)】GMAT-RC专项资料精炼提升（10）链接：OG12-21Line & & After evidence was obtained in the 1920s thatthe universe is expanding, it became reasonableto ask: Will the universe continue to expandindefinitely, or is there enough mass in it for the(5)mutual attraction of its constituents to bring thisexpansion to a halt? It can be calculated thatthe critical density of matter needed to brake theexpansion and &close& the universe is equivalentto three hydrogen atoms per cubic meter. But the(10)density of the observable universe—luminous matterin the form of galaxies—comes to only a fractionof this. If the expansion of the universe is to stop,there must be enough invisible matter in theuniverse to exceed the luminous matter in density(15)by a factor of roughly 70. & & & & Our contribution to the search for this &missingmatter& has been to study the rotational velocityof galaxies at various distances from their centerof rotation. It has been known for some time that(20)outside the bright nucleus of a typical spiral galaxyluminosity falls off rapidly with distance from thecenter. If luminosity were a true indicator of mass,most of the mass would be concentrated towardthe center. Outside the nucleus the rotational(25)velocity would decrease geometrically with distancefrom the center, in conformity with Kepler's law.Instead we have found that the rotational velocityin spiral galaxies either remains constant withincreasing distance from the center or increases(30)slightly. This unexpected result indicates that thefalloff in luminous mass with distance from thecenter is balanced by an increase in nonluminousmass. & & & & &Our findings suggest that as much as 90(35) percent of the mass of the universe is not radiatingat any wavelength with enough intensity to bedetected on the Earth. Such dark matter could bein the form of extremely dim stars of low mass,of large planets like Jupiter, or of black holes,(40) either small or massive. While it has not yet beendetermined whether this mass is sufficient toclose the universe, some physicists consider itsignificant that estimates are converging on thecritical value.
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Questions 115-119 refer to the passage on page 400.115. The passage is primarily concerned with(A) defending a controversial approach(B) criticizing an accepted view(C) summarizing research findings(D) contrasting competing theories(E) describing an innovative techniqueMain ideaFiguring out the authors' primary concerndepends on a careful review of the passage as awhole. The first paragraph identifies the largerquestion that is the context for the authors'investigation. The second paragraph presents thepart of the question the authors researched,concluding with their unexpected results. Thethird paragraph explains the importance of thesefindings in relation to the larger question of theuniverse's possible &close.& The authors' primarypurpose in this passage is to summarize thefindings of their research.A & &The authors do not discuss approaches to thequestion they research.B & &The authors mention that their findings donot conform to Kepler's law, but thepassage's primary focus is on summarizingresearch findings and not on criticizing anyparticular view.C & &Correct. This passage presents a summationof the findings of the authors' research.D & &The authors do not contrast differenttheories in this passage.E & &The authors do not discuss new techniquesin this passage.The correct answer is C.116. The authors' study indicates that, in comparison withthe outermost regions of a typical spiral galaxy, theregion just outside the nucleus can be characterizedas having(A) higher rotational velocity and higher luminosity(B) lower rotational velocity and higher luminosity(C) lower rotational velocity and lower luminosity(D) similar rotational velocity and higher luminosity(E) similar rotational velocity and similar luminosityInferenceIn the second paragraph, the authors observe thatoutside the bright nucleus ofa typical spiral galaxyluminosity falls off rapidly (lines 20-21); the regionjust outside the nucleus may thus be characterizedas having higher luminosity than the outermostregions of a spiral galaxy. Their research finds thatthe rotational velocity in spiral galaxies either remainsconstant with increasing distance from the center orincreases slightly (lines 27-30). The region justoutside the nucleus may thus be characterized assharing with the outermost regions of a spiralgalaxy a similar rotational velocity.A & &This region was expected to have higherrotational velocity, but the research findingsdid not corrobo it iscorrect that the region has higherluminosity.B & &The region does have higher luminosity, butnot lower rotational velocity.C & &The region has neither lower luminosity norlower rotational velocity.D & &Correct. The region has similar rotationalvelocity and higher luminosity.E & &The region has similar rotational velocity buthigher luminosity.The correct answer is D.117. The authors' suggestion that &as much as 90 percentof the mass of the universe is not radiating at anywavelength with enough intensity to be detected onthe Earth& (lines 34-37) would be most weakened ifwhich of the following were discovered to be true?(A) Spiral galaxies are less common than types ofgalaxies that contain little nonluminous matter.(B) Luminous and nonluminous matter arecomposed of the same basic elements.(C) The bright nucleus of a typical spiral galaxy alsocontains some nonluminous matter.(D) The density of the observable universe isgreater than most previous estimates havesuggested.(E) Some galaxies do not rotate or rotate too slowlyfor their rotational velocity to be measured.ApplicationThe authors' conclusion about nonluminousmatter is based on their study of the rotationalvelocity of spiral galaxies. If spiral galaxies werefound to be atypical of galaxies, then it would bepossible that, in those other galaxies,nonluminous matter does not increase asluminous matter decreases. If this were the case,the authors' conclusion would be based on asample of galaxies not representative of the whole,and their argument would be seriously weakened.A & &Correct. The authors' conclusion assumesthat spiral galaxies are typinformation calling that assumption intoquestion weakens the argument.B The relation rather than the composition ofluminous and nonluminous mass is relevantto the conclusion.C & &Nonluminous mass increases as luminousmass decreases: This finding does not ruleout that the nucleus contains some the argument is notaffected.D & &The density of the observable universe isonly a fraction of the density needed to &close&the universe, so even if this density weregreater, it is not likely to exceed the densityof nonluminous matter.E & &The authors are concerned only withmeasurable rotational velocity.118. It can be inferred from information presented in thepassage that if the density of the universe wereequivalent to significantly less than three hydrogenatoms per cubic meter, which of the following wouldbe true as a consequence?(A) Luminosity would be a true indicator of mass.(B) Different regions in spiral galaxies would rotateat the same velocity.(C) The universe would continue to expandindefinitely.(D) The density of the invisible matter in theuniverse would have to be more than 70 timesthe density of the luminous matter.(E) More of the invisible matter in spiral galaxieswould have to be located in their nuclei than intheir outer regions.InferenceAn inference is drawn from stated information.This question refers to the first paragraph, wherethe authors explain that the critical density ofmatter needed to brake the expansion and &close& theuniverse is equivalent to three hydrogen atoms percubic meter (lines 7-9). If the density issignificantly less, then the universe will not &close&but continue to expand indefinitely.A & &The authors' finding that luminosity is not atrue indicator of mass is not derived fromthe conclusion that the density is less thanthree hydrogen atoms per cubic meter.B & & The authors' finding that different regionsrotate at similar velocities does not comefrom the hypothesis about the density of theuniverse.C & &Correct. If the critical density needed to&close& the universe is equivalent to threehydrogen atoms per cubic meter, then adensity of significantly less than this amountmeans that the universe will continue itsexpansion.D & &This statement would be true of thehypothetical &close& of the universe, but if thedensity is less than three hydrogen atomsper cubic meter, the universe will continueits expansion.E & &This statement cannot be inferred from thehypothesis about the density of the universe.119. The authors propose all of the following as possiblycontributing to the &missing matter& in spiral galaxiesEXCEPT(A) massive black holes(B) small black holes(C) small, dim stars(D) massive stars(E) large planetsSupporting ideasThis question asks the reader to find the list ofpossible explanations for the &missing& or darkmatter that the authors give in the passage and tocheck that list against the possible answers. Usingthe process of elimination will show whichanswer is not included on the authors' list. In thefinal paragraph, the authors write, Such darkmatter could be in theform of extremely dim stars oflow mass, oflarge planets like Jupiter, or ofblackholes, either small or massive (lines 37-40).A & &The authors include massive black holes.B & &The authors include small black holes.C & &The authors include small, dim stars.D & &Correct. The authors do not include massivestars in their list of possible explanations for&missing matter.&E & &The authors include large planets.The correct answer is D.
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OG12-22Line & & Jon Clark's study of the effect of themodernization of a telephone exchange on exchangemaintenance work and workers is a solidcontribution to a debate that encompasses two(5)lively issues in the history and sociology oftechnology: technological determinism and socialconstructivism. & & & & Clark makes the point that the characteristics of atechnology have a decisive influence on job skills(10)and work organization. Put more strongly,technology can be a primary determinant of socialand managerial organization. Clark believes thispossibility has been obscured by the recentsociological fashion, exemplified by Braverman's(15)analysis, that emphasizes the way machineryreflects social choices. For Braverman, the shape ofa technological system is subordinate to themanager's desire to wrest control of the laborprocess from the workers. Technological change is(20)construed as the outcome of negotiations amonginterested parties who seek to incorporate their owninterests into the design and configuration of themachinery. This position represents the newmainstream called social constructivism.(25) & & The constructivists gain acceptance bymisrepresenting technological determinism:technological determinists are supposed to believe,for example, that machinery imposes appropriateforms of order on society. The alternative to(30)constructivism, in other words, is to view technologyas existing outside society, capable of directlyinfluencing skills and work organization.Clark refutes the extremes of the constructivistsby both theoretical and empirical arguments.(35)Theoretically he defines &technology& in terms ofrelationships between social and technical variables.Attempts to reduce the meaning of technology tocold, hard metal are bound to fail, for machinery isjust scrap unless it is organized functionally and(40)supported by appropriate systems of operation andmaintenance. At the empirical level Clark shows howa change at the telephone exchange frommaintenance-intensive electromechanical switchesto semielectronic switching systems altered work(45)tasks, skills, training opportunities, administration,and organization of workers. Some changes Clarkattributes to the particular way management andlabor unions negotiated the introduction of thetechnology, whereas others are seen as arising from(50)the capabilities and nature of the technology itself.Thus Clark helps answer the question: &When issocial choice decisive and when are the concretecharacteristics of technology more important?&
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Questions 120-127 refer to the passage on page 402.120. The primary purpose of the passage is to(A) advocate a more positive attitude towardtechnological change(B) discuss the implications for employees of themodernization of a telephone exchange(0 & consider a successful challenge to theconstructivist view of technological change(D) challenge the position of advocates oftechnological determinism(E) suggest that the social causes of technologicalchange should be studied in real situationsThis question asks for an assessment of what thepassage as a whole is doing. The passageintroduces Clark's study as a solid contribution(lines 3-4) to the debate between technologicaldeterminists and social constructivists. In thesecond paragraph, Braverman is introduced asholding a position of social constructivism, aposition that Clark takes issue with. In the finalparagraph, the passage holds that Clark refutes theextremes of the constructivists (line 33), and Clark'sarguments challenging social constructivism arethen described.A & &The passage takes no position on the meritsof technological change but is concernedonly with the role of such change in society.B & &The passage mentions telephone exchangeworkers as an example that helps illustratethe more central debate betweendeterminists and constructivists.C & &Correct. The passage is mainly concernedwith portraying Clark's view as a successfulchallenge to constructivism.D & &The passage describes Clark's view as asuccessful challenge to social constructivism,not technological determinism.E & &The passage is concerned with describing achallenge to social constructivism and notwith suggesting the context in whichtechnological change ought to be studied.The correct answer is C.121. Which of the following statements about themodernization of the telephone exchange is supportedby information in the passage?(A) The new technology reduced the role ofmanagers in labor negotiations.(B) The modernization was implemented without theconsent of the employees directly affected by it.(C) The modernization had an impact that wentsignificantly beyond maintenance routines.(D) Some of the maintenance workers felt victimizedby the new technology.(E) The modernization gave credence to the view ofadvocates of social constructivism.Supporting ideasThis question requires recognizing informationcontained in the passage. The passage states in thefirst paragraph that Clark's study focused on themodernization of a telephone exchange and theefFect this had on maintenance work and workers.After describing Braverman's analysis in thesecond paragraph as being at odds with Clark'sviews, the passage discusses Clark's views in moredetail in the final paragraph. As part of thisdiscussion, the passage notes that Clark showshow a change from maintenance-intensiveelectromechanical switches to semielectronic switchingsystems at the telephone exchange altered worktasks, skills, training opportunities, administration,and organization of workers (lines 41—46). Thus,the passage shows that the modernization of thetelephone exchange affected much more thanmaintenance routines.A & &The passage does not discuss whether newtechnology reduces the role of managers inlabor negotiations.B & &The passage does not discuss the role ofemployee consent in the modernization ofthe telephone exchange.C & &Correct. The passage states that themodernization of the telephone exchangeaffected tasks, skills, training,administration, and the organization ofworkers.D & &The passage does not suggest thatmaintenance workers felt victimized by themodernization of the telephone exchange.E & &The passage describes modernization as afact viewable from a perspective of socialconstructivism or technologicaldeterminism, but that does not in itselfsupport either view.The correct answer is C.122. Which of the following most accurately describesClark's opinion of Braverman's position?(A) He respects its wide-ranging popularity.(B) He disapproves of its misplaced emphasis onthe influence of managers.(D) He admires the consideration it gives to theattitudes of the workers affected.(E) He is concerned about its potential to impedethe implementation of new technologies.(F) He is sympathetic to its concern about theimpact of modern technology on workers.InferenceAnswering this question requires inferring whatthe passage's author likely believes. The passagedescribes Braverman's position as one ofmainstream social constructivism (lines 23-24), aposition that Clark takes issue with. Although itdescribes Braverman's position, the rest of thepassage is devoted to showing how Clark'sposition takes issue with Braverman's. In thesecond paragraph, the passage describes Clark asholding that technology can be a primarydeterminant of social and managerial organization(lines 11—12), which suggests that managers aresometimes subordinate to technological change.In lines 16-19, however, Braverman is describedas holding that the shape of a technological system issubordinate to the managers desire to wrest control ofthe labor processfrom the workers, which shows thatClark and Braverman are at odds on this point.A & &Since the passage says that Clark believes animportant insight has been obscured by therecent sociologicalfashion that Braverman'sviews exemplify (lines 12-15), one cannotinfer that Clark respects the popularity ofBraverman's views.B & & Correct. The passage shows that Clarkbelieves managers to have less influence overhow technology affects an organization thanBraverman claims that they have.C & &The passage does not indicate that Clarkadmires any aspect of Braverman's position.D & &The passage does not indicate that Clarkconsiders impediments to modernization.E & &The passage does not indicate that Clark issympathetic to any concerns attributed toBraverman.The correct answer is B.123. The information in the passage suggests that whichof the following statements from hypotheticalsociological studies of change in industry most clearlyexemplifies the social constructivists' version oftechnological determinism?(A) It is the available technology that determinesworkers' skills, rather than workers' skillsinfluencing the application of technology.(B) All progress in industrial technology grows outof a continuing negotiation betweentechnological possibility and human need.(0 & Some organizational change is caused by some is caused by computer chips.(D) Most major technological advances in industryhave been generated through research anddevelopment.(E) Some industrial technology eliminates jobs, buteducated workers can create whole new skillsareas by the adaptation of the technology.ApplicationThis question requires understanding differentpoints of view discussed in the passage. In thefirst paragraph, the passage mentions the debateinvolving technological determinism and socialconstructivism. In the second and thirdparagraphs, the passage uses Braverman's analysisto illustrate the social constructivists' position andin the third paragraph suggests that theconstructivists are misrepresenting technologicaldeterminism (lines 25-26). In lines 31-32, theconstructivists are reported to hold thattechnological determinism views technology asexisting outside society, capable of directly influencingskills and work organization.A Correct. This statement is consistent withthe constructivists' view that technologicaldeterminism sees technology as outside ofsociety, influencing workers' skills.B & &The passage states that the constructivistshold that technological determinists aresupposed to believe... that machinery imposesappropriate forms of order on society (lines27-29), suggesting that no negotiation ispresent.C & &According to the description of them inthe passage, constructivists portraytechnological determinists as believing thattechnology, not people, drives organizationalchange.D & &The passage does not portray eitherconstructivists or determinists as beingconcerned with technological research anddevelopment.E & &The passage does not portray eitherconstructivists or determinists as beingconcerned with technology-driven jobelimination or creation.The correct answer is A.124. The information in the passage suggests that Clarkbelieves that which of the following would be true ifsocial constructivism had not gained widespreadacceptance?(A) Businesses would be more likely to modernizewithout considering the social consequences oftheir actions.(B) There would be greater understanding of therole played by technology in producing socialchange.(C) Businesses would be less likely to understandthe attitudes of employees affected bymodernization.(D) Modernization would have occurred at a slowerrate.(E) Technology would have played a greater part indetermining the role of business in society.InferenceAnswering this question involves understanding apoint of view as it is described in the passage. Thepassage aligns Clark's study closely with the .technological determinists, summarizing his viewin lines 11—12: technology can be a primarydeterminant of social and managerial organization.In the following sentence, the passage states thatClark believes that this possibility is obscured by therecent sociological fashion, exemplified by Braverman'sanalysis (lines 12-15). After illustratingBraverman's analysis, the passage then states thatit represents social constructivism.A According to the passage, Clark holds thatconstructivists obscure how modernizationmight have social consequences.B & &Correct. According to the passage, Clarksees constructivism as obscuring thepossibility that technology plays a primaryrole in social change.C & &The passage does not discuss how theattitudes of employees are perceived by theiremployers.D & &The passage describes a debate about thehistory and soc it doesnot suggest that sociological analyses affectthe pace of modernization.E & &The passage describes a debate about thehistory and soc it doesnot suggest that sociological analyses affectthe role that technology plays in business.The correct answer is B.125. According to the passage, constructivists employedwhich of the following to promote their argument?(A) Empirical studies of business situations involvingtechnological change(B) Citation of managers supportive of their position(0 & Construction of hypothetical situations thatsupport their view(D) Contrasts of their view with a misstatement ofan opposing view(E) Descriptions of the breadth of impact oftechnological changeSupporting ideasAnswering this question involves recognizinginformation given in the passage. The passageindicates that a debate exists betweentechnological determinists and socialconstructivists, suggesting that these views are inopposition. The passage goes on to state thatconstructivists gain acceptance by misrepresentingtechnological determinism (lines 25-26). Thismisrepresentation is presented as the alternative toconstructivism (lines 29-30), suggesting thatconstructivists promoted their own view bycontrasting it with a misrepresentation ofdeterminists' views.A & &The passage mentions empirical studies inrelation to Clark's study but not Braverman'sanalysis.B & &The passage does not mention that managerswere supportive of any particular point ofview within the sociology of technology.C & &The passage does not mention anyhypothetical situations as being used by theconstructivists in support of their view.D & &Correct. The passage indicates that theconstructivists have come into fashion bycontrasting their own views with amisrepresentation of the views oftechnological determinists.E & &The passage does not describe theconstructivists as making determinationsregarding the degree of impact thattechnological change has on social ormanagerial organization.The correct answer is D.126. The author of the passage uses the expression &aresupposed to& in line 27 primarily in order to(A) suggest that a contention made byconstructivists regarding determinists isinaccurate(B) define the generally accepted position ofdeterminists regarding the implementation oftechnology(C) engage in speculation about the motivation ofdeterminists(D) lend support to a comment critical of theposition of determinists(E) contrast the historical position of deterministswith their position regarding the exchangemodernizationEvaluationThis question requires understanding how aparticular phrase functions in the passage asa whole. In the third paragraph the passagestates that constructivists gain acceptance bymisrepresenting technological determinism (lines25-26) and follows this claim with an example ofthis misrepresentation, stating that technologicaldeterminists are supposed to believe, for example (lines27-28). This line implies that the constructivistview of the determinists is inaccurate.A & &Correct. The passage uses the expression inpart to provide an example of theconstructivists' misrepresentation of thedeterminists.B & &The passage indicates that the viewattributed to the determinists is amisrepresentation, not one that is generallyaccepted by determinists.C & &The expression in the passage is part of adiscussion about the motivation ofconstructivists, not determinists.D & &The expression in the passage is part of adiscussion that is critical of theconstructivists, not the determinists.E & &The passage does not describe either thehistorical position of determinists or theirposition on the exchange modernization.The correct answer is A.127. Which of the following statements about Clark's studyof the telephone exchange can be inferred frominformation in the passage?(A) Clark's reason for undertaking the study was toundermine Braverman's analysis of the functionof technology.(B) Clark's study suggests that the implementationof technology should be discussed in the contextof conflict between labor and management.(C) Clark examined the impact of changes in thetechnology of switching at the exchange interms of overall operations and organization.(D) Clark concluded that the implementation of newswitching technology was equally beneficial tomanagement and labor.(E) Clark's analysis of the change in switchingsystems applies only narrowly to the situation atthe particular exchange that he studied.This question requires understanding what thepassage implies in its discussion of a point of view.The details of Clark's views are discussedprimarily in the final paragraph. The passagestates that on an empirical level, Clarkdemonstrates that technological change regardingswitches at the telephone exchange altered worktasks, skills, training opportunities, administration,and organization of workers (lines 44-46). Thepassage goes on to state Clark's contention thatthese changes even influenced negotiationsbetween management and labor unions.A & &The passage indicates that Clark's studyaddressed the extremes of bothtechnological determinism and socialconstructivism. It cites Braverman as aproponent of social constructivism butprovides no evidence that Clark's motivationin beginning his study was specifically totarget an analysis offered by Braverman.B & &The passage indicates that Clark attributedsome organizational change to the way laborand management negotiated theintroduction of technology but does notmention conflict between them.C & &Correct. According to the passage, Clarkconcludes that changes to the technology ofswitches had an influence on several aspectsof the overall operations and organization ofthe telephone exchange.D & &The passage does not indicate that Clarkassesses the benefits of technological changeto either labor or management.E & &The passage indicates that Clark believes thechange in switching technology influencedmany aspects of the overall operations of thetelephone exchange.The correct answer is C.
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OG12-21一、回忆（我回视回视回视再回视，脑残小孩儿快乐多吼~） & & &evidence 1920s & & &问题提出：宇宙会继续扩大膨胀咩？或是可以有足够的什么物质在相互吸引的情况下停止膨胀？ & & &宇宙膨胀和停止的临界密度：每立方米三个氢原子。 & & &意思是这个“临界密度”还不够。。还需要考虑luminous matter。 & & &宇宙要是想停止膨胀，暗物质要超过发光物质-&70%. & & &“missing matter”从银河星系开始从不同的距离研究银河星系的自转速度。 & & &预期反对：要是luminosity were a true indicator of mass，情况阐述：大多数物质聚集于中心位置；outsider转速递减。。。依照开普勒定理（原谅文科生吧。。。。） & & & 转折，研究发现：转速不变，略微上升。 & & & 研究结果显示：luminous mass的减少被暗物质的增加balance。 & & & 作者发现显示：(。。只记住数字90%。。求物理懂的童鞋帮帮ToT。。。。) & & & dark matter列举，必出题。 & & & 虽然没有确定是否dark mass足够close the universe，一些物理学家认为估计临界值是很重要的。。。。（饭饭残了。。）二、文章类型：问题解决型三、prephase-出题点 & & & &（一）结构题型：首段中两个问题的作用。 & & & &（二）预期反对的总用。 & & & &（三）转速改变和距离变化的问题。 & & & &（四）临界值：含义的考察、数值的考察，此词为本文的关键词。 & & & & （五）列举题：dark matter包含哪些？ & & & & （六）常见主旨、态度题。
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22绝对素饭饭的“爱人”~~清醒的时候做哇~~分类：社会科学-结论解释型
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2'32 讲的是宇宙爆炸的事，这种文章我总是记不住写了什么C 57'B 5'02D 2'51E 1'44呜呜，错了三题啊！~~~第二篇太长了。。。晚上回来做~~
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俺22看了两遍，似乎明白了，可是题做的那叫一个惨
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对不起亲们么么。。。饭饭。。。。各种贴的跟帖。。。。有的提示收不到捏。。。。(*^__^*) 嘻嘻……~~~~各位加油
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