how did the empire change under the abbasids? 求高人翻译这句话_百度知道General Information
{ah-bas'-ids}
The Abbasids were the dynasty of caliphs who ruled the
Islamic Empire from 750 until the Mongol conquest of the
Middle East in 1258.
The dynasty takes its name from its
ancestor al-Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad.
750 the Abbasids defeated the Umayyads and transferred the
capital of the Caliphate from Damascus to Baghd?d, thereby
shifting the empire's center from Syria to Iraq.
The regime reasserted the theocratic concept of the
caliphate and continuity with orthodox Islam as the basis
of unity and authority in the empire.
The Abbasid
&revolution& also made Islam and the fruits of power
accessible to non-Arabs.
A strong Persian influence
persisted in the government and culture of the Abbasid
period, and Hellenistic ideas led to the rapid growth of
intellectual life.
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The Abbasid period may be divided into two parts.
period from 750 to 945 the authority of the caliphs
gradually declined, while the Turkish military leaders
gained increasing influence.
The dynasty's power peaked in
the reign (786-809) of Harun Al-Rashid.
In the later
period, from 945 to 1258, the caliphs generally held no
real power, even in Baghd?d,
passed to dynasties of secular sovereigns.
Michael W. Dols
Bibliography:
Ahsan, M. M., Social Life under the Abbasids
(1979); Goldschmidt, A., Jr., A Concise History of the
Middle East, 3d rev. ed. (1988); Hitti, Philip K.,
History of the Arabs, 10th ed. (1970); Lassner, J., The
Shaping of Abbasid Rule (1980); Mansfield, Peter, The Arab
A Comprehensive History (1976); Shaban, M.
The Abbasid Revolution (1970; repr. 1979).
General Information
The Abbasids was a dynasty of caliphs who ruled the caliphate of Islam
from 750 until 1258. All of these caliphs were descended from Abbas,
a member of the tribe of Quraysh of Mecca who was an uncle of the
prophet Muhammad. The Abbasids seized the caliphate following the
overthrow of the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs, and held it until
the Mongols sacked Baghd?d and killed the last caliph of the line.
For most of this time their court was in Baghd?d, a town founded
at the command of the second Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur (754-775) in 762.
For the first century or so of their caliphate, the Abbasids acted as
the leaders of Islam both religiously and politically, despite the
fact that during this period their authority was rejected by some.
The peak of their power probably occurred in the reign of Harun
ar-Rashid, who relied heavily on the Barmakid family of
administrators. Following Harun's death there was a period of civil
war between his two sons, al-Amin and al-Mamun. Al-Mamun finally
triumphed but the prestige of the family was damaged.
By the end of the 9th century the Abbasids were unable to exercise
real religious or political authority. Their religious authority had
been taken over by the religious scholars of Sunni Islam following
the failure of the caliphs' attempt to impose their will over them
in the trial of strength known as the Mihna (833-847). As a result
of this episode the caliphs were restricted to a largely symbolic
role as merely nominal leaders of Sunni Islam. Followers of Shiism
rejected the Abbasids completely.
Politically the caliphs had become puppets in the hands of their
Turkish soldiers, who were able to remove and install caliphs as
they wished. In 908 one caliph held office for one day only. The
process culminated with the institution in 935 of the title Amir
al-Umara (Commander of the Commanders), which was taken by the
real political power, the chief of the Turkish soldiers.
At the same time, territories that the Abbasids controlled fell
apart as independent states arose in regions previously under Abbasid
rule. Some of the rulers of these states recognized the suzerainty
of the Abbasids, but this was merely a token. In 945 the Shiite
Buwayhid family conquered Baghd?d itself, and for the next century
the Abbasid caliphate survived mainly because the Buwayhids found it
useful in various ways.
Although the 9th and 10th centuries saw a decline in the power of the
caliphs, the period was one of great religious and cultural importance.
The trial of strength between the caliphs and the Sunni religious
scholars sealed the rise of the Sunni form of Islam. It prepared the
way for the appearance of the great books of Sunni law and the
collections of hadiths (reports about Muhammad). Only slightly later,
the Shiite form of Islam achieved its definitive form when the line
of the 12 Imams came to an end in 873, an event followed by the
appearance of books of Shiite law and distinctive collections of hadiths.
Philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and other sciences flourished as
the Islamic world appropriated and developed the knowledge and wisdom
of earlier and surrounding cultures. Particularly important was the
science and philosophy of the Hellenistic Near East, and the 9th and
10th centuries saw the translation into Arabic of several works by
(or attributed to) figures like Aristotle, Plato, Euclid, Galen, and
others. The work of translation was encouraged by the Abbasid al-Mamun
who founded the so-called House of Wisdom (Dar al-Hikma) in Baghd?d
as a center for it. Arabic-speaking Christians were especially active
in the production of translations. The system of so-called Arabic
numerals originated in India, but was adopted at this time by
Islamic civilization, then later transmitted to the West.
The political fragmentation of the caliphate led to the emergence
of many local courts and centers of power, which also encouraged the
development of science and philosophy as well as poetry and prose,
art, and architecture. Some of the local courts that emerged in the
eastern regions of the caliphate are especially associated with the
rise of an Islamic Persian literature and Iranian national sentiment.
In 1055 the Seljuk Turks, who were Sunnis, captured Baghd?d, but this
made no significant difference to the position of the caliphs. Although
once again honored as symbols of the unity of Sunni Islam, their
freedom of action was severely limited. Only in times of Seljuk
weakness were individual caliphs occasionally able to exercise some
power and influence. By the time the Mongol Empire ended the line of
caliphs in 1258, Sunni Islam no longer needed even the symbolic role
of the caliphate. It is true that the Mameluke sultans of Egypt
established a puppet caliphate in Cairo, installing various members
of the Abbasid family who had escaped the fall of Baghd?d. Since
the end of the Abbasid caliphate in Baghd?d, however, no claimant
to the office has achieved anything like general recognition among
the Muslims.
After their first century or so the Abbasids cannot be said to have
had much control over events. They nevertheless provided a focus of
loyalty for Sunni Islam during an often turbulent period, and their
caliphate may be seen in retrospect as the golden age of Islamic
civilization.
General Information
The Abbasids was the name of a dynasty of Muslim caliphs. The
Umayyads were overthrown by a combination of Shiite, Arab and non-Arab Muslims
dissatisfied with the Umayyad regime. The rebels were led by the Abbasid family,
descendants of the Prophet's uncle Abbas. From about 718 the Abbasids had
plotted to take the caliphate, sending agents into various parts of the Muslim
empire to spread propaganda against the Umayyads. By 747 they had secured enough
support to organize a rebellion in northern Iran that led to the defeat of the
Umayyad caliphate three years later. The Abbasids executed most of the Umayyad
family, moved the capital of the empire to Baghdad,
and assimilated much of the pomp and ceremony of the former Persian monarchy
into their own courts.
Beginning in 750 with Abu al-Abbas, the Abbasid caliphate lasted
it is the most durable and most famous Islamic dynasty. The
Abbasids became patrons of learning and encouraged religious observance. They
were the first Muslim rulers to become leaders of an Islamic civilization and
protectors of the religion rather than merely an Arab aristocracy imposing an
Arab civilization on conquered lands. Under their caliphate Baghdad
replaced Medina as the center of theological activity, industry and commerce
developed greatly, and the Islamic empire reached a peak of material and
intellectual achievement.
The 8th- and 9th-century caliphs Harun ar-Rashid and his son
Abdullah al-Mamun are especially renowned for their encouragement of
intellectual pursuits and for the splendor of their courts. During their reigns
scholars were invited to the court to debate various topics, and translations
were made from Greek, Persian, and Syriac works. Embassies also were exchanged
with Charlemagne, emperor of the West.
In the late 9th century, the Abbasid caliphs increasingly began
to delegate administrative responsibility to ministers of state and other
government officials and to lose control over their Baghdad
guards. As they gradually gave up personal political power, the caliphs placed
more and more emphasis on their role as protectors of the faith. One result of
this change in emphasis was the increased persecution of heretics and
non-Muslims. About the same time, several successful revolts in the eastern
provinces led to the establishment of independent principalities, and
independent caliphates were subsequently established in North Africa and in
Spain. Eventually, the power of the Abbasids barely extended outside Baghdad,
and by the middle of the 10th century, the Abbasid caliphs had virtually no
power, serving merely as figureheads at the mercy of the military commanders.
The final defeat of the Abbasid dynasty came from outside the Muslim world, when
al-Mustasim was put to death by the invading Mongols at the order of Hulagu, the
grandson of Genghis Khan.
The Abbasid Dynasty
General Information
Islamic culture started to evolve under the Umayyads, but it grew
to maturity in the first century of the Abbasid dynasty. The Abbasids
came to power in AD 750 when armies originating from Khor?s?n, in
eastern Iran, finally defeated the Umayyad armies. The Islamic capital
shifted to Iraq under the Abbasids. After trying several other
cities, the Abbasid rulers chose a site on the Tigris River on which
the City of Peace, Baghd?d, was built in 762. Baghd?d remained the
political and cultural capital of the Islamic world from that time
until the Mongol invasion in 1258, and for a good part of this time
it was the center of one of the great flowerings of human knowledge.
The Abbasids were Arabs descended from the Prophet's uncle, but the
movement they led involved Arabs and non-Arabs, including many
Persians, who had converted to Islam and who demanded the equality
to which they were entitled in Islam.
The Abbasids distributed power more evenly among the different
ethnicities and regions than the Umayyads had, and they demonstrated
the universal inclusiveness of Islamic civilization. They achieved this
by incorporating the fruits of other civilizations into Islamic
political and intellectual culture and by marking these external
influences with a distinctly Islamic imprint.
As time passed, the central control of the Abbasids was reduced and
independent local leaders and groups took over in the remote provinces.
Eventually the rival Shia Fatimid caliphate was established in Egypt,
and the Baghd?d caliphate came under the control of expanding
provincial dynasties. The office of the caliph was nonetheless
maintained as a symbol of the unity of Islam, and several later
Abbasid caliphs tried to revive the power of the office.
In 1258, however, a grandson of Mongol ruler Genghis Khan named
Hulagu, encouraged by the kings of Europe, led his armies across
the Zagros Mountains of Iran and destroyed Baghd?d. According to
some estimates, about 1 million Muslims were murdered in this
massacre. In 1259 and 1260 Hulagu's forces marched into Syria,
but they were finally defeated by the Mamluks of Egypt, who had
taken over the Nile Valley. For the next two centuries, centers
of Islamic power shifted to Egypt and Syria and to a number of local
dynasties. Iraq became an impoverished, depopulated province
where the people took up a transitory nomadic lifestyle. Iraq did
not finally experience a major cultural and political revival
until the 20th century.
Ahmad S. Dallal
General Information
Abbasid was the dynastic name generally given to the caliphs of Baghdad,
the second of the two great dynasties of the Muslim empire.
The Abbasid caliphs officially based their claim to the throne on
their descent from Abbas (AD 566-652), the eldest uncle of
Muhammad, in virtue of which descent they regarded themselves as the
rightful heirs of the Prophet as opposed to the Umayyads, the
descendants of Umar.
Throughout the second period of the Umayyads, representatives of
this family were among their most dangerous opponents, partly by the
skill with which they undermined the reputation of the reigning
princes by accusations against their orthodoxy, their moral character
and their administration in general, and partly by their cunning
manipulation of internecine jealousies among the Arabic and
non-Arabic subjects of the empire.
In the reign of Marwan II this opposition culminated in the rebellion
of Ibrahim the Imam, the fourth in descent from Abbas, who, supported
by the province of Khorasan, achieved considerable successes, but was
captured (AD 747) and died in prison (as some hold, assassinated).
The quarrel was taken up by his brother Abdallah, known by the name
of Abu al-'Abbas as-Saffah, who after a decisive victory on the Greater
Zab river (750) finally crushed the Umayyads and was proclaimed caliph.
The history of the new dynasty is marked by perpetual strife and the
development of luxury and the liberal arts, in place of what their
opponents identified as old-fashioned austerity of thought and manners.
Mansur, the second of the house, who transferred the seat of government
to the new city of Baghdad, fought successfully against the peoples
of Asia Minor, and the reigns of Harun al-Rashid (786--809) and
al-Ma'mun (813-833) were periods of extraordinary splendour.
Independent monarchs established themselves in Africa and Khorasan
(an Umayyad prince had set up independent rule in Spain), and in the
north-west the Byzantines successfully encroached.
The ruin of the dynasty came, however, from those Turkish slaves who
were constituted as a royal bodyguard by al-Mu'tasim (833-842).
Their power steadily grew until al-Radi (934-941) was constrained
to hand over most of the royal functions to Mahommed b. Raik.
Province after province renounced the authority of the caliphs,
who became figureheads, and finally Hulagu Khan, the Mongol general,
sacked Baghdad (February 28, 1258) with great loss of life.
The Abbasids still maintained a feeble show of authority, confined to
religious matters, in Egypt under the Mamelukes, but the dynasty
finally disappeared with Motawakkil III, who was carried away as
a prisoner to Constantinople by Selim I.
(from 1911 encyclopedia)
Abbasid Caliphs of Baghdad
(descendants of the Prophet's uncle Abbas)
Abu'l Abbas Al-Saffah 750-754
Al-Mansur 754-775
Al-Mahdi 775-785
Al-Hadi 785-786
Harun al-Rashid 786-809
Al-Amin 809-813
Al-Ma'mun 813-833
Al-Mu'tasim 833-842
<a Al-Wathiq 842-847
Al-Mutawakkil 847-861
Al-Muntasir 861-862
Al-Musta'in 862-866
Al-Mu'tazz 866-869
Al-Muhtadi 869-870
Al-Mu'tamid 870-892
Al-Mu'tadid 892-902
Al-Muktafi 902-908
(908, one day)
Al-Muqtadir 908-932
Al-Qahir 932-934
Al-Radi 934-940
Al-Muttaqi 940-944
Al-Mustakfi 944-946
(by about 950, very little power)
Al-Muti 946-974
Al-Ta'i 974-991
Al-Qadir 991-1031
Al-Muqtadi
Al-Mustazhir
Al-Mustarshid
Al-Muqtafi
Al-Mustanjid
Al-Mustadi
Al-Mustansir
Al-Musta'sim
(conquered by Mongols in 1258)
Abbasid Caliphs in Cairo
Al-Mustansir 1261
Al-Hakim I
Al-Mustakfi I
Al-Wathiq I
Al-Hakim II
Al-Mu'tadid I
Al-Mutawakkil I
Al-Wathiq II
Al-Mu'tasim
Al-Mutawakkil I (restored)
Al-Musta'in
Al-Mu'tadid II
Al-Mustakfi II
Al-Mustanjid
Al-Mutawakkil II
Al-Mustamsik
Al-Mutawakkil III
(conquered by Selim I in 1517)
The Abbasids had the Mihna in effect during their reign (beginning in
This was a movement of extreme intolerance, and it is sometimes
referred to as the Muslim Inquisition.
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　　TPO19阅读真题(文本+答案+翻译)：Part1 The Roman Army&#39;s Impact on Britain罗马军队对不列颠的影响，更多托福TPO阅读真题、TPO阅读文本、TPO阅读答案、TPO阅读翻译尽在新东方在线频道！　　The Roman Army&#39;s Impact on Britain　　In the wake of the Roman Empire&#39;s conquest of Britain in the first century A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and these troops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications, and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers&#39; animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government.　　Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally &a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers n otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas.　　Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations.　　The army also provided a mean of personal advancement for auxiliary soldiers recruited from the native peoples, as a man obtained hereditary Roman citizenship on retirement after service in an auxiliary regiment. Such units recruited on an ad hoc (as needed) basis from the area in which they were stationed, and there was evidently large-scale recruitment within Britain. The total numbers were at least 12,500 men up to the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), with a peak around A.D. 80. Although a small proportion of the total population, this perhaps had a massive local impact when a large proportion of the young men were removed from an area. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another province from whence it was unlikely that individual recruits would ever return. Most units raised in Britain went elsewhere on the European continent, although one is recorded in Morocco. The reverse process brought young men to Britain, where many continued to live after their 20 to 25 years of service, and this added to the cosmopolitan Roman character of the frontier population. By the later Roman period, & frontier garrisons (groups of soldiers) were only rarely transferred, service in units became effectively hereditary, and forts were no longer populated or maintained at full strength.　　This process of settling in as a community over several generations, combined with local recruitment, presumably accounts for the apparent stability of the British northern frontier in the later Roman period. It also explains why some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to have any formal authority in Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The circumstances that had allowed natives to become Romanized also led the self-sustaining military community of the frontier area to become effectively British.　　Paragraph 1: In the wake of the Roman Empire&#39;s conquest of Britain in the firstcentury A.D., a large number of troops stayed in the new province, and thesetroops had a considerable impact on Britain with their camps, fortifications,and participation in the local economy. Assessing the impact of the army on the civilian population starts from the realization that the soldiers were always unevenly distributed across the country. Areas rapidly incorporated into the empire were not long affected by the military. Where the army remained stationed, its presence was much more influential. The imposition of a military base involved the requisition of native lands for both the fort and the territory needed to feed and exercise the soldiers&#39; animals. The imposition of military rule also robbed local leaders of opportunities to participate in local government, so social development was stunted and the seeds of disaffection sown. This then meant that the military had to remain to suppress rebellion and organize government.　　1.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.　　O
Many Roman soldiers remained in Britain after conquering it, and their presence had a strong influence.　　O
The new Roman province of Britain seemed to awaken in the first century A.D. as the local economy improved.　　O
Camps, fortifications, and economic change contributed to the Roman conquest of Britain.　　O
With the conquest of Britain by Roman troops, the Roman Empire gained considerable economic strength.　　2.According to paragraph 1, the Roman army had the most influence on those areas of Britain that were　　O
conquered first　　O
near population centers　　O
used as military bases　　O
rapidly incorporated into the empire　　3.According to paragraph 1, what effect did military occupation have on the local population?　　O It encouraged more even distribution of the population and the settlement of previously undeveloped territory.　　O It created discontent and made continuing military occupation necessary.　　O It required local labor to construct forts and feed and exercise the soldiers&#39; animals.　　O It provided local leaders with opportunities to participate in governance.　　4.The word &suppress& in the passage is closest in meaning to　　O
respond to　　O
warn against　　O
avoid the impact of　　O
stop by force　　Paragraph 2: Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. When not campaigning, soldiers n otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building abathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas.　　5. The word &friction& in the passage is closest in meaning to　　O
rebellion　　O
conflict　　O
neglect　　O
crime　　6.The author mentions &343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building abathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead& in order to　　O
describe the kinds of tasks soldiers were required to perform as punishment for disloyalty or misdeeds　　O
illustrate some of the duties assigned to soldiers to keep them busy and well-behaved when not involved in military campaigns　　O
provide evidence that Roman soldiers had a negative effect on the local area by performing jobs that had been performed by native workers　　O
argue that the soldiers would have been better employed in the construction of infrastructure such as roads　　Paragraph 3: Each soldier received his pay, but in regions without a developed economy there was initially little on which it could be spent. The pool of excess cash rapidly stimulated a thriving economy outside fort gates. Some of the demand for the services and goods was no doubt fulfilled by people drawn from far afield, but some local people certainly became entwined in this new economy. There was informal marriage with soldiers, who until AD 197 were not legally entitled to wed, and whole new communities grew up near the forts. These settlements acted like small towns, becoming centers for the artisan and trading populations.　　7.The phrase &entitled to& in the passage is closest in meaning to　　O
given the right to　　O
able to afford to　　O
encouraged to　　O
required to　　8.According to paragraph 3, how did the soldiers meet their needs for goods and services?　　O
Their needs were met by the army, and all of their economic transactions took place within the fort.　　O
Most of their needs were met by traveling tradespeople who visit the forts.　　O
During their days off, soldiers traveled to distant towns to make purchases.　　O
They bought what they needed from the artisans and traders in nearby towns.　　Paragraph 4: The army also provided a means of personal advancement for auxiliary soldiers recruited from the native peoples, as a man obtained hereditary Roman citizenship on retirement after service in an auxiliary regiment. Such units recruited on an ad hoc (as needed) basis from the area in which they were stationed, and there was evidently large-scale recruitment within Britain. The total numbers were at least 12,500 men up to the reign of the emperor Hadrian (A.D. 117-138), with a peak around A.D. 80. Although a small proportion of the total population, this perhaps had a massive local impact when a large proportion of the young men were removed from an area. Newly raised regiments were normally transferred to another province from whence it was unlikely that individual recruits would ever return. Most units raised in Britain went elsewhere on the European continent, although one is recorded in Morocco. The reverse process brought young men to Britain, where many continued to live after their 20 to 25 years of service, and this added to the cosmopolitan Roman character of the frontier population. By the later Roman period, frontier garrisons (groups of soldiers) were only rarely transferred, service in units became effectively hereditary, and forts were no longer populated or maintained at full strength.　　9.According to paragraph 4, which of the following is true of Britain&#39;s auxiliary regiments of the Roman army?　　O
Membership in these regiments reached its highest point during the region of the emperor Hadrian.　　O
Most of the units recruited in Britain were sent to Morocco and other stations outside Europe.　　O
Soldiers served in the regiments for many years and after retirement generally stayed where they had been stationed.　　O
Most of the regiments stationed on the frontier were new units transferred from a neighboring province.　　10.According to paragraph 4, all of the following changes could be seen in the frontier garrisons by the later Roman period EXCEPT:　　O
Membership in the units passed from father to son.　　O
Fewer soldiers were stationed at the forts.　　O
Soldiers usually were not transferred to different locations.　　O
Frontier units became more effective and proficient.　　Paragraph 5: This process of settling in as a community over several generations, combined with local recruitment, presumably accounts for the apparent stability of the British northern frontier in the later Roman period. It also explains why some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to haveany formal authority in Britain, at the beginning of the fifth century A.D. The circumstances that had allowed natives to become Romanized also led the self-sustaining military community of the frontier area to become effectively British.　　11.Why does the author mention that &some of the forts continued in occupation long after Rome ceased to haveany formal authority in Britain& ?　　O To emphasize the degree to which the stability of the British northern frontier depended on firm military control　　O To suggest that the Romans continued to occupy Britain even after they had formally given up the right to do so　　O To support the claim that forts continued to serve an import economic function even after they ceased to be of any military use　　O To describe one of the things that resulted from frontier garrisons&#39; becoming part of the local community over a long period　　12.The word &circumstances& in the passage is closest in meaning to　　O
experiences　　O
communities　　O
conditions　　O
laws　　Paragraph 2: Economic exchange was clearly very important as the Roman army brought with it very substantial spending power. Locally a fort had two kinds of impact. Its large population needed food and other supplies. ■ Some of these were certainly brought from long distances, but demands were inevitably placed on the local area. ■ Although goods could be requisitioned, they were usually paid for, and this probably stimulated changes in the local economy. ■ When not campaigning, soldiers n otherwise they represented a potentially dangerous source of friction and disloyalty. ■ Hence a writing tablet dated 25 April tells of 343 men at one fort engaged on tasks like shoemaking, building a bathhouse, operating kilns, digging clay, and working lead. Such activities had a major effect on the local area, in particular with the construction of infrastructure such as roads, which improved access to remote areas.　　13.Look at the four squares [■] that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.　　One solution was to keep them busy as sources of labor.　　Where would the sentence best fit?　　14.Directions: An introductory sentence for a brief summary of the passage is provided below. Complete the summary by selecting the THREE answer choices that express the most important ideas in the passage. Some sentence do not belong to the summary because they express ideas that are no presented in the passage or are minor ideas in the passage. This question is worth 2 points.　　The Roman army&#39;s occupation of Britain influenced and changed the local population.　　●　　●　　●　　Answer Choices　　O Although the presence of the army in certain areas caused resentment among the local population, it provided important services such as building infrastructure.　　O By recruiting unemployed young men for its auxiliary units, the army made it possible for them to stay in their home towns and provide financial support for their families.　　O Large quantities of cash from soldiers&#39; pay stimulated development, but also drove up prices, making it hard for local residents to afford goods and services.　　O Though the army appropriated land and some goods, it also paid for many supplies, stimulating local economic growth.　　O The forts contributed to the quality of local crafts by bringing in artisans from distant places who brought with them new skills and techniques.　　O Roman soldiers started families with local inhabitants, and over the generations, the military community became a stable part of British society.　　
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