& “完形填空（共20小题；每小题1.5分，满...”习题详情
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完形填空（共20小题；每小题1.5分，满分30分）阅读下面短文, 从每题所给的四个选项（A、B、C和D）中，选出最佳选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。If you asked high school girls to name their favourite sports, most would probably say basketball or volleyball. I happen to be one of the few girls who would 　21　: surfing. But isn’t that a boy thing? Some people 　22　. &I started surfing about five years ago and 　23　 in love with the sport on the very first day. Riding that first wave was the best feeling I had ever 　24　.When I try to 　25　　surfing with other things, I find it very difficult because, in my 　26　,there’s nothing like it. It involves（涉及）body, 　27　, and soul. There’s sand between my toes and cool, salt water all 　28　us. The feeling I get when I’m surfing across that &&29 , becoming one with the ocean, is like I’m &&30& .The one thing I can get from surfing and not any other sport is endless &&31& . You can never be the “best surfer” because the ocean &&32& an uncountable variety of waves that nobody can ever master. The variations of surfing styles are wonderful. Some surfers
&&33&&are very aggressive（攻击性的）and sharp. All of these things attract me to surfing and make it &&34&&from any other sport.I’ve &&35&&to tell every girl I know to do something that people don’t think girls can do. It’s part of being human to advance to new levels, so shouldn’t it be &&36&&that girls should step up and start pushing the limits of things boys and men &&37&&dominate (主宰)?There’re women &&38&&side by side with the President of our country, so why not side by side with the boys &&39& the football team or out in the water surfing? Give girls a chance to succeed, and they &&40& .21.
A. tell &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. answer &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. give&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. realize22.
A. wonder &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. understand &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. reply on &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. believe23.
A. stayed &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. came &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. dropped &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. fell24.
A. experienced &&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. adventured &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. worked out &&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. discovered25.
A. bring &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. connect &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. compare &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. tie26.
A. work &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. study &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. holiday &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. life27.
A. mind &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. figure &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. health &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. control28.
A. over &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. above &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. around &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. among29.
A. beach &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. water &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. board &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. lake30.
A. weight &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. overweight&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. weight-loss &&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. weightless31.
A. success &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. challenge &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. ability &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. trouble32.&& A. catches &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. includes &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. offers &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. collects33.
A. others &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. other &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. another &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. the other34.
A. exciting &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. attractive &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. enjoyable &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. different35.
A. chosen &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. tried &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. learned &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. promised36.
A. expected &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. supposed &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. achieved &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. proved37.
A. hated to &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. hoped to &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. used to &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. had to38.
A. sitting &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. walking &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. fighting &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. working39.
A. of &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. from &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. on &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. with40.
A. had &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& B. will &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& C. have &&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&& D. do 21-25 BADAC&&& 26-30 DACBD &31-35 BCADB&&&& 36-40 ACDCB&
本题难度：一般
题型：解答题&|&来源：2010-河北省邯郸市0910学年度高二第二学期期末考试（英语）
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完形填空（共20小题；每小题1.5分，满分30分）阅读下面短文, 从每题所给的四个选项（A、B、C和D）中，选出最佳选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。If you asked high school gi...
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欢迎来到乐乐题库，查看习题“完形填空（共20小题；每小题1.5分，满分30分）阅读下面短文, 从每题所给的四个选项（A、B、C和D）中，选出最佳选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。If you asked high school girls to name their favourite sports, most would probably say basketball or volleyball. I happen to be one of the few girls who would 　21　: surfing. But isn’t that a boy thing? Some people 　22　. I started surfing about five years ago and 　23　 in love with the sport on the very first day. Riding that first wave was the best feeling I had ever 　24　.When I try to 　25　　surfing with other things, I find it very difficult because, in my 　26　,there’s nothing like it. It involves（涉及）body, 　27　, and soul. There’s sand between my toes and cool, salt water all 　28　us. The feeling I get when I’m surfing across that 29 , becoming one with the ocean, is like I’m 30 .The one thing I can get from surfing and not any other sport is endless 31 . You can never be the “best surfer” because the ocean 32 an uncountable variety of waves that nobody can ever master. The variations of surfing styles are wonderful. Some surfers
33are very aggressive（攻击性的）and sharp. All of these things attract me to surfing and make it 34from any other sport.I’ve 35to tell every girl I know to do something that people don’t think girls can do. It’s part of being human to advance to new levels, so shouldn’t it be 36that girls should step up and start pushing the limits of things boys and men 37dominate (主宰)?There’re women 38side by side with the President of our country, so why not side by side with the boys 39 the football team or out in the water surfing? Give girls a chance to succeed, and they 40 .21.
C. give D. realize22.
B. understand
C. reply on
D. believe23.
C. dropped
D. fell24.
A. experienced
B. adventured
C. worked out
D. discovered25.
B. connect
C. compare
C. holiday
D. life27.
D. control28.
D. among29.
D. lake30.
B. overweight C. weight-loss
D. weightless31.
A. success
B. challenge
C. ability
D. trouble32. A. catches
B. includes
D. collects33.
C. another
D. the other34.
A. exciting
B. attractive
C. enjoyable
D. different35.
C. learned
D. promised36.
A. expected
B. supposed
C. achieved
D. proved37.
A. hated to
B. hoped to
C. used to
D. had to38.
A. sitting
B. walking
C. fighting
D. working39.
D. with40.
D. do ”的答案、考点梳理，并查找与习题“完形填空（共20小题；每小题1.5分，满分30分）阅读下面短文, 从每题所给的四个选项（A、B、C和D）中，选出最佳选项，并在答题卡上将该项涂黑。If you asked high school girls to name their favourite sports, most would probably say basketball or volleyball. I happen to be one of the few girls who would 　21　: surfing. But isn’t that a boy thing? Some people 　22　. I started surfing about five years ago and 　23　 in love with the sport on the very first day. Riding that first wave was the best feeling I had ever 　24　.When I try to 　25　　surfing with other things, I find it very difficult because, in my 　26　,there’s nothing like it. It involves（涉及）body, 　27　, and soul. There’s sand between my toes and cool, salt water all 　28　us. The feeling I get when I’m surfing across that 29 , becoming one with the ocean, is like I’m 30 .The one thing I can get from surfing and not any other sport is endless 31 . You can never be the “best surfer” because the ocean 32 an uncountable variety of waves that nobody can ever master. The variations of surfing styles are wonderful. Some surfers
33are very aggressive（攻击性的）and sharp. All of these things attract me to surfing and make it 34from any other sport.I’ve 35to tell every girl I know to do something that people don’t think girls can do. It’s part of being human to advance to new levels, so shouldn’t it be 36that girls should step up and start pushing the limits of things boys and men 37dominate (主宰)?There’re women 38side by side with the President of our country, so why not side by side with the boys 39 the football team or out in the water surfing? Give girls a chance to succeed, and they 40 .21.
C. give D. realize22.
B. understand
C. reply on
D. believe23.
C. dropped
D. fell24.
A. experienced
B. adventured
C. worked out
D. discovered25.
B. connect
C. compare
C. holiday
D. life27.
D. control28.
D. among29.
D. lake30.
B. overweight C. weight-loss
D. weightless31.
A. success
B. challenge
C. ability
D. trouble32. A. catches
B. includes
D. collects33.
C. another
D. the other34.
A. exciting
B. attractive
C. enjoyable
D. different35.
C. learned
D. promised36.
A. expected
B. supposed
C. achieved
D. proved37.
A. hated to
B. hoped to
C. used to
D. had to38.
A. sitting
B. walking
C. fighting
D. working39.
D. with40.
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当当读书客户端万本电子书免费读From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article contains . Without proper , you may see .
Love encompasses a variety of different emotional and mental states, typically strongly and positively experienced, ranging from the most sublime
or good habit, the deepest
and to the simplest . An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse differs from the love of food. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional . Love can also be a
representing human , , and affection, as "the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another". It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, one's self or animals.
Ancient Greek philosophers identified four forms of love: essentially,
(). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: , , , and . Non-Western traditions have also distinguished . Love has additional
meaning. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states.
Love in its various forms acts as a major facilitator of
and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the .
Love has been postulated to be a function to keep human beings together against menaces and to .
Romeo and Juliet parting on the balcony in Act III.
The word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as "love"; one example is the plurality of
which includes agape and eros.
in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition.
Although the nature or
of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn't love (antonyms of "love"). Love as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like) is commonly contrasted with
(or neutral ). As a less sexual and more
form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with . As an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with , although the word love is often applied to close friendships. (Further possible ambiguities come with usages "girlfriend", "boyfriend", "just good friends").
Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from 250–900 AD, of
Abstractly discussed love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf. ), including oneself (cf. ). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after , although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.
The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a . Several common
regard love, from 's "" to ' "". , following , defines love as "to will the good of another."
describes love as a condition of "absolute value," as opposed to . Philosopher
said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another."
stated that in love there is a "feeling of unity" and an "active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love." Biologist
defines love as "unconditional selflessness".
People can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, , and strong spiritual or political convictions. People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called . A
principle that people say they love is
Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a much more potent sentiment than a simple liking for a person.
refers to those feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with . Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as .
Pair of Lovers.
Throughout history,
have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the 20th century, the science of
has written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of , , , and
have added to the understanding the concept of love.
Biological models of sex tend to view love as a
drive, much like
or . , an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lus romantic attraction determines what partners mates find attractive and pursue, conserving time an and attachment involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security. Three distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and three behavioral patterns, are associated with these three romantic styles.
is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes , and involves the increased release of chemicals such as
and . These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months.
is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in
have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the , , , and , the same compounds released by , stimulating the brain's
and leading to side effects such as increased , loss of
and , and an . Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.
Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships.
that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as
and , or on mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals
to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.
and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the
(NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.
Grandmother and grandchild in
depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon.
formulated a
and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. The last form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. Non-love does not include any of these components. Liking only includes intimacy. Infatuated love only includes passion. Empty love only includes commitment. Romantic love includes both intimacy and passion. Companionate love includes intimacy and commitment. Fatuous love includes passion and commitment. Lastly, consummate love includes all three components. American psychologist
sought to define love by
in the 1970s. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.
Following developments in electrical theories such as , which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as "opposites attract". Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as , it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds. In recent years, various
theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities. Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of , whose work in the field of
explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another," and simple narcissism. In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.
Psychologist
maintained in his book
that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact, the "feeling" of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time. In this sense, Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration. Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.
in Paris: "I love you" in 250 languages
has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool. Humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period. Furthermore, researchers as early as
himself identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credit love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species. Another factor may be that
can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced , injury to the fetus, and increase complications during . This would favor monogamous relationships over .
Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to
or . Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Certainly love is influenced by
(such as ),
(such as ), and , and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in
is that there are two major drives in love:
and . Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of
and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by
(shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.
Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by
depicting , the Greek personification of romantic love
distinguishes
in which the word "love" is used. Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love: kinship or
(), sexual and/or
or divine love (). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love. However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the
has examples of the
agapo having the same meaning as .
(?γ?πη agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. The term s'agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a "pure,"
of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as "love of the soul."
(?ρω? érōs) (from the Greek deity ) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love.
refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as "love of the body".
(φιλ?α philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept addressed and developed by
Book VIII. It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated
one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean "love of the mind."
(στοργ? storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.
(ξεν?α xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in . It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout —in particular, 's
has several different verbs corresponding to the English word "love."
is the basic verb meaning I love, with the infinitive
(“to love”) as it still is in
today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans—a lover, amator, "professional lover," often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, "girlfriend" in the English sense, often being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor (the significance of this term for the Romans is well illustrated in the fact, that the name of the City, —in Latin: Roma—can be viewed as an
for amor, which was used as the secret name of the City in wide circles in ancient times), which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures. This same root also produces amicus—"friend"—and amicitia, "friendship" (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to "indebtedness" or "influence"). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia), which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called
(The Art of Love), which addresses, in depth, everything from
to overprotective parents.
Latin sometimes uses amāre where English would simply say to like. This notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by the terms placere or delectāre, which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of . Diligere often has the notion "to be affectionate for," "to esteem," and rarely if ever is used for romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of "diligence" or "carefulness," and has little semantic overlap with the verb. Observare is a synonym for diligere; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote "esteem" or "affection."
is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean "charitable love"; this meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan . As it arises from a
with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.
"Ai," the traditional
for love (愛) contains a
(心) in the middle.
Two philosophical underpinnings of love exist in the Chinese tradition, one from
which emphasized actions and duty while the other came from
which championed a universal love. A core concept to Confucianism is
("benevolent love", 仁), which focuses on duty, action and attitude in a relationship rather than love itself. In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as
from children, kindness from parent, loyalty to the king and so forth.
The concept of Ai (愛) was developed by the Chinese philosopher
in the 4th century BC in reaction to Confucianism's benevolent love. Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese over-attachment to family and clan structures with the concept of "universal love" (jiān'ài, 兼愛). In this, he argued directly against Confucians who believed that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, by contrast, believed people in principle should care for all people equally. Mohism stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes towards different people, love should be unconditional and offered to everyone without regard to reciprocation, not just to friends, family and other Confucian relations. Later in , the term Ai (愛) was adopted to refer to a passionate caring love and was considered a fundamental desire. In Buddhism, Ai was seen as capable of being either selfish or selfless, the latter being a key element towards enlightenment.
In contemporary Chinese, Ai (愛) is often used as the equivalent of the Western concept of love. Ai is used as both a verb (e.g. wo ai ni 我愛你, or "I love you") and a noun (such as aiqing 愛情, or "romantic love"). However, due to the influence of Confucian Ren, the phrase 'Wo ai ni' (I love you) carries with it a very specific sense of responsibility, commitment and loyalty. Instead of frequently saying "I love you" as in some Western societies, the Chinese are more likely to express feelings of affection in a more casual way. Consequently, "I like you" (Wo xihuan ni, 我喜欢你) is a more common way of expressing affection in C it is more playful and less serious. This is also true in Japanese (suki da, 好きだ).
Ohatsu and Tokubei, characters of
uses three words to convey the English equivalent of "love". Because "love" covers a wide range of emotions and behavioral phenomena, there are nuances distinguishing the three terms. The term ai (愛), which is often associated with maternal love or selfless love, originally referred to beauty and was often used in religious context. Following the
1868, the term became associated with "love" in order to translate Western literature. Prior to Western influence, the term koi (恋) generally represented romantic love, and was often the subject of the popular
Japanese poetry collection. Koi describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typical interpreted as selfish and wanting. The term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one. Though modern usage of koi focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire. The third term, ren'ai (恋愛), is a more modern construction that combines the
characters for both ai and koi, though its usage more closely resembles that of koi in the form of romantic love.
and his consort
making love
Indian king enjoying
Kama in Indian literature means “desire, wish or longing”. In contemporary literature, kama refers usually to sexual desire. However, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature.
The concept kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in . For example, Book 10 of Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. There in hymn 129, it states:
??????????? ?????????? ???? ???? ????? ?????? |
??? ????????? ????????? ????? ???????????? ????? ||
Thereafter rose Desire in the beginning, Desire the primal seed and germ of Spirit,
Sages who searched with their heart's thought discovered the existent's kinship in the non-existent.
— , ~ 15th Century BC
The children of Adam are limbs of one body
Having been created of one essence.
When the calamity of time afflicts one limb
The other limbs cannot remain at rest.
If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others
You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man".
,    
are icons of the passion and love that the
and language present.[] The Persian word for love is , which is derived from , however it is considered by most to be too stalwart a term for interpersonal love and is more commonly substituted for "doost dashtan" ("liking").[] In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life.[]
spelling ahava.
The Christian understanding is that love comes from God. The love of man and woman—eros in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are often contrasted as "descending" and "ascending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.
There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.
: In the , agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating g it is the way
is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.
: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love."
Two other ,
(sexual love) and
(child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.
believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your
as yourself are the two most important things in life (the
of the Jewish , cf.
chapter 12, verses 28–34).
summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."
Sacred and Profane Love (1602–03) by . Intended as an attack on his hated enemy the artist , it shows a boy (hinting at Caravaggio's homosexuality) on one side, a devil with Caravaggio's face on the other, and between an angel representing pure, meaning non-erotic, love.
glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in , he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." ( 13:4–7, )
wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him." ( 3:16–17, NIV) John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." ( 4:7–8, NIV)
says that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, “I was in love with love.” Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as “jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.” According to Saint Augustine, to love God is “to attain the peace which is yours.” (Saint Augustine's Confessions)
Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in Matthew 22 as the heart of Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible. After the review of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of
(1.22.21-1.40.44;).
see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian
wrote a book called .
wrote his first
on "". He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is a to give himself to God and others () and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as
and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.
taught that "True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved..what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by God." And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian, for Pope Francis, "the key to love...is not our activity. It is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: God’s."
In Christianity the practical definition of love is best summarised by , who defined love as "to will the good of another," or to desire for another to succeed. This is the explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies. As Thomas Aquinas explains, Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people.
Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew chapter five:
“You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.” - Matthew 5: 43-48
Tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: “Our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. To love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only among Christians.”
In , ???? () is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love between God and God's creations. , often translated as , is used to describe many forms of love between human beings.
The commandment to love other people is given in the , which states, "Love your neighbor like yourself" ( 19:18). The Torah's commandment to love
"with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might" ( 6:5) is taken by the
(a central text of the Jewish ) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one's life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one's possessions, and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5).
differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature. As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" ( 9:9). The biblical book
is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between
and his people, but in its plain reading, reads like a love song. The 20th-century
is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take" (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, Vol. 1).
Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith. Amongst the 99 names of God (), there is the name Al-Wadud, or "the Loving One," which is found in Surah [ ] as well as Surah [ ]. God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the Qur'an as Ar-Rahman and Ar-Rahim, or the "Most Compassionate" and the "Most Merciful", indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate and benevolent than God. The Qur'an refers to God as being "full of loving kindness."
The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat all people, those who have not persecuted them, with birr or "deep kindness" as stated in Surah [ ]. Birr is also used by the Qur'an in describing the love and kindness that children must show to their parents.
, or divine love, is the emphasis of
in the Islamic tradition. Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at himself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices to see the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.[] God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.
described four types of love: the love that flows from G the love that flows from human beings to G the love of God towards the Self or Identity of G and the love of human beings for human beings.
is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to , since it is selfish.
is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment. Adve?a and
are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare.
ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. The strongest motivation one has in order to take the path of the Bodhisattva is the idea of salvation within unselfish, altruistic love for all sentient beings.
Kama (left) with Rati on a temple wall of ,
is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god . For many Hindu schools, it is the third end () in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of
and he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usually accompanied by his consort
and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Kamadeva and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chennakeshava temple at Belur, in , . Maara is another name for kāma.
In contrast to kāma, prema – or prem – refers to elevated love.
is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a
term, meaning "loving devotion to the supreme God." A person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of , which can be found in the
and works by . The philosophical work , written by an unknown author (presumed to be ), distinguishes eleven forms of love.
In certain Vaishnava sects within Hinduism, attaining unadulterated, unconditional and incessant love for Godhead is considered the foremost goal of life. Gaudiya Vaishnavas who worship Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes consider Love for Godhead (Prema) to act in two ways: sambhoga and vipralambha (union and separation)—two opposites .
In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union there is supreme happiness and nectarean. Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (Love for Godhead) is not fire but that it still burns away one's material desires. They consider that K???a-prema is not a weapon, but it still pierces the heart. It is not water, but it washes away everything—one's pride, religious rules, and one's shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas. Radha is considered to be the internal potency of Krishna, and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of material realm as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between Radha (the supreme lover) and Krishna (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in India such as the
and Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.
In the Bhakti tradition within Hinduism, it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God (taiche bhakti-phale krsne prema upajaya), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination (krishna-prema asvada haile, bhava nasa paya). Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination. and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to be the perfection of life.
The term free love has been used to describe a
that rejects , which is seen as a form of social bondage. The Free Love movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual matters such as marriage, , and . It claimed that such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.
Many people in the early 19th century believed that marriage was an important aspect of life to "fulfill earthly human happiness." Middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. This mentality created a vision of strongly defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love movement as a contrast.
The term "sex radical" is also used interchangeably with the term "free lover", and was the preferred term by advocates because of the negative connotations of "free love".[] By whatever name, advocates had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea of forceful sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body in any way that she pleases. These are also beliefs of .
The philosophy of love is a field of
that attempts to
the nature of love. The philosophical investigation of love includes the tasks of distinguishing between the various kinds of personal love, asking if and how love is or can be justified, asking what the
of love is, and what impact love has on the
of both the lover and the beloved.
Many different theories attempt to
the nature and function of love. Explaining love to a hypothetical person who had not himself or herself experienced love or being loved would be very difficult because to such a person love would appear to be quite strange if not outright irrational behavior. Among the prevailing types of theories that attempt to account for the existence of love are:
theories, the vast majority of which consider love to be v
which hold that love is par
which may, for instance consider love to
and theories that consider love to be an unexplainable mystery, very much like a .
There were many attempts to find the equation of love. One such attempt was by Christian Rudder, a mathematician and co-founder of online dating website , one of the largest online dating sites. The mathematical approach was through the collection of large data from the dating site. Another interesting equation of love is found by in the philosophical blog 'In the Quest of Truth'. Love is defined as a measure of selfless give and take, and the author attempted to draw a graph that shows the equation of love. Aggregately, dating resources indicate a nascent line of variables effectively synchronising couples in naturally determined yearning.
Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary (1998) + Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary (2000)
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, in his book On Love ("De l'amour"; Paris, 1822), distinguished carnal love, passionate love, a kind of uncommitted love that he called "taste-love", and love of vanity.
in his book Love in the Western World traced the story of passionate love (l'amour-passion) from its courtly to its romantic forms. , in the introduction to his Anthology of Sublime Love (Paris, 1956), further identified "sublime love", a state of realized idealisation perhaps equatable with the romantic form of passionate love.
Anders Theodor Samuel Nygren,
(first published in , ).
. www.iep.utm.edu 2017.
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JFK Miller, "
24 January 2010 at the ."
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Ralph Griffith (Translator, 1895), , Book X, Hymn CXXIX, Verse 4, pp 575
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claims to have coined the term around 1850, and laments that its use was appropriated by
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