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has given rise to a discussion which, as part of social unrest, is known under the name of the "woman question", and for which a solution is sought in the movement for the emancipation of women. In theory as in practice the answer to the question varies with the view one takes of life.
with its unchangeable principles, and without misjudging the justifiable demands of the age, undertakes to guide the woman movement also into the right path. The life-task of woman is a double one. As an individual woman has the high destiny
upon every human being of acquiring moral perfection. As a member of the
woman is called in union with man to represent humanity and to develop it on all sides.
Both tasks are indissolubly united, so that the one cannot be fully accomplished without the other. The freedom of the woman consists in the possibility of fulfilling unimpeded this double task with its
and privileges both in public and private life. The limitation of the freedom, whether actual or merely imaginary, necessarily calls forth the effort to do away with the obstructing barriers. In order to judge rightly these efforts known as the "woman movement" the
of woman in the life of humanity must be correctly stated. For this purpose, however, the first thing
is the proper conception of the feminine . The sources from which this definition is to be drawn are nature and history.
The same essentially identical
appears in the male and female sex in two- there are, consequently, male and female . On the other hand, there is no neutral human
without distinction of sex. Hence follows in the first place, woman's claim to the possession of full and complete
, and thus, to complete equality in moral value and position as compared with man before the Creator. It is, therefore, not permissible to take one sex as the one absolutely perfect and as the standard of value for the other.
designation of woman as an incomplete or mutilated man ("De animal. gennerat.", II, 3d ed. Berol., 773a) must, therefore, be rejected. The untenable
definition, "Femina est mas occasionatus", also arose under
influence. The same view is to be found in the "last Scholastic", Dionysius Ryckel ("Opera minora", ed. Tournay, 1907, II, 161a).
The female sex is in some respects inferior to the male sex, both as regards body and . On the other hand, woman has qualities which man lacks. With
does the writer on , , say: "I call the female sex neither the beautiful nor the weak sex (in the absolute sense). The one designation is the invention equally of sensua the other owes its currency to masculine arrogance. In its way the female sex is as strong as the male, namely in endurance and patience, in quiet long-suffering, in short, in all that concerns its real sphere, viz., the inner life" (Lose Bl&tter", Collected by von G& Freiburg, 1895, 50). On account of the moral equality of the sexes the moral law for man and woman must also be the same. To assume a lax morality for the man and a rigid one for the woman is an oppressive
even from the point of view of common sense. Woman's work is also in itself of equal value with that of a man, as the work performed by both is ennobled by the same human dignity.
The fact that there is no sexually neutral human being has, however, a second consequence. The sexual character can be separated from the human being as something secondary only in thought, not in actuality. The word "person" belongs neither to the
n it is rather, that the
informing the body constitutes the full conception of the human
only in its union with the body. It is in no way, therefore, permissible to limit differences only to the primary and secondary peculiarities of the body. On the contrary, the indisputable results of anatomical, physiological and
research show a difference so far-reaching between man and woman that the following is established as a scientific result: the feminine
assumes the complete
in a different manner from the masculine. According to the intention of the Creator, therefore, the manifestation of
in women necessarily differs from its
the social spheres of interests and callings of the sexes are unlike. These distinctions can be diminished or increased by
and custom but cannot be completely annulled. Just as it is not permissible to take one sex as the standard of the other, so from the social point of view it is not allowable to confuse the vocational activities of both. The most manly man and the most feminine woman are the most perfect types of their sexes.
From this far-reaching sexual difference there follows, thirdly, the combination of the sexes for the purpose of an organic social union of the . which we call humanity, that is to say humanity cannot be represented by any number, however large, of
of like sex but is to be found solely in the social and organic union of man and woman. Thus each man and each woman is, indeed, by nature a complete human being with the high moral vocati on the other hand the entire male sex in itself represents only the half of humanity and the female sex the other half, while one man and one woman together suffice to represent humanity. Consequently each of the two sexes requires the other for i a complete social equality would nullify this purpose of the Creator. Evidently the intention at the basis of the differences mentioned is to force the complemental union of the two sexes as a necessity of nature. Accordingly, notwithstanding the equal human dignity, the
of the woman differ from those of the man in the
and the forms of
which naturally develop from it.
If the two sexes are designed by nature for a homogeneous organic co-operation, then the leading position or a social pre-eminence must necessarily fall to one of them. Man is called by the Creator to this position of leader, as is shown by his entire bodily and
make-up. On the other hand, as the result of this, a certain social subordination in respect to man which in no way injures her personal independence is assigned to woman, as soon as she enters into union with him. Consequently nothing is to be urged on this point of equality of position or of equality of
and privileges. To deduce from this the inferiority of woman or her degradation to a "second-rate human being" contradicts
just as much as would the attempt to regard the citizen as an inferior being because he is subordinate to the officials of the state.
It should be emphasized here that man owes his authoritative pre-eminence in
not to personal achievements but to the appointment of the Creator according to the world of the Apostle: "The man . . . is the im but the woman is the glory of the man" (). The Apostle in this reference to the creation of the first human pair presupposes the image of
in the woman. As this likeness manifests itself exteriorly in
supremacy over creation (), and as man as the born leader of the
first exercised this supremacy, he is called directly
image in this capacity. Woman takes part in this supremacy only indirectly under the guidance of the man and as his helpmeet. It is impossible to limit the Pauline stat and the Apostle himself inferred from this the social position of woman in the
community. Thus her natural position is assigned to woman in every form of
that springs necessarily from the . This position is described by
with classic clearness . This , which has always been maintained by the
, was repeatedly emphasized by . The encyclical "Arcanum", 10 February, 1880, declares: "The husband is ruler of the
the woman as flesh of his flesh and bone of his bone is to be subordinate and obedient to the husband, not, however, as a hand-maid but as a companion of such a kind that the obedience given is as honourable as dignified. As, however, the husband ruling represents the image of
and the wife obedient the image of the , Divine
should at all times set the standard of ".
Thus the germ of human , which a sound sociology must take as its starting-point, is not the abstract human individual but the living union of man and woman primarily in the home. The different characteristics in the equipment of the sexes point to such a division of labour between the two that man and woman are to watch over the training of the growing generation, not apart from each other, but jointly and in partnership.
Consequently the activities of both in the social domain may perhaps be compared to two concentric circles of unlike circumference. The external, larger circle represents the vocational labours of the man, the inner circle that of the woman. What the Creator prepared by the difference of endowment is realized in the indissoluble marital union of one man and one woman. The man becomes a father with paternal
which include the support of the
and, when , their protection. On the other hand, the woman receives with motherhood a series of maternal . The social
of the woman may, therefore, be designated as motherhood, just as it is the
of man to be the representative of paternal authority. The completely developed feminine
is thus to be found in the mother. Of course this development of motherhood in the woman is not limited to its physiological aspect. It is rather that this motherly sense and its activity can and should, as the highest development of noble womanhood, precede marriage and can exist without it. As a creature compounded of the spiritual and material, the human being has more than the destiny of continuing his race by generation and birth. It is still more incumbent on him to develop the spiritual and
life by the training which is rightly called the second birth. This training, however, prospers as little without the specific motherly influence, as the bringing of a child into the world without the mother. The community, the nation, the state, however, are, as the
natural development of the , the organized totality of the individual . Consequently the motherly influence must also extend over these and must be kept within the bounds corresponding to the division of labour between man and woman. In these forms of social life also man must vigorously represent authority, while woman, called to the dignity of the mother, must supplement and aid the labour of the man by her unwearied collaboration. This
is stated in homely fashion in the expressions "father of the country", "mother of the country". Hence man, as man, and woman, as woman, have to attain the common highest end of , which extends beyond time by the fulfillment here below of social .
This social vocation, whether in marriage or outside of it, is therefore to be regarded by both as means to an end. (cf. ). If these two reciprocal spheres of activity are taken in the narrowest sense they exclude each other, as the actual task assigned by nature to woman cannot be performed by man, while the reverse is also . At the same time there is the mixed domain of the earning of a livelihood in which both sexes work, although in so doing neither can deny his or her characteristic qualities. Here, however, nature forbids competition in the same field, as woman is more engrossed by her peculiar natural
than man is by his. We may justly speak of "dualism in woman's life". But, the perpetuation and development in civilization of
always come first as natural . Consequently, according to physical law woman should be spared all industrial burdens which impair her most important
in life. It remains to be seen how the dictates of nature have been carried out in human history.
Christ proved himself to be the central point in the history of , and not least by the change his teaching effected in the position of woman. The testimony of history as to the position of woman in all pre-Christian and non-Christian peoples may be summed up as follows: No people has completely misjudged the natural position of woman, so that everywhere woman appears in greater or less subordination to man. No people, however, has done full
to the perso on the contrary, most peoples evidence an alarmingly low moral level by their degrading oppression of woman. Before the Gospel came into the world, man had virtually brought about for woman the condition thus described by Mary Wollstonecraft in the introduction to her "Vindication of the Rights of Woman": "In the government of the physical world it is observable that the female in point of strength is, in general, inferior to the male. This is the
of N and it does not appear to be suspended or abrogated in favor of woman. A degree of physical superiority cannot, therefore, be denied--and it is a noble prerogative! But not is natural preeminence, men endeavor to sink us still lower, merely to render us alluring
and woman, intoxicated by the adoration which men, under the influence of their senses, pay them, do not seek to obtain a durable interest in their hearts, or to become the friends of the fellow-creatures who find amusement in their ."
Contrary to the fundamental principle of historical research, the Darwinian theory of evolution has also been applied to the original position of the sexes. A primitive hetaerism without any permanent marital relation is claimed to be the basis of the later evolution. The first stage of this development, however, is represented as "the right of the mother" or matriarchy, whereby not the man but the woman, it is claimed, represented, among the peoples, the legal head of the .
However, the researches of Bachofen, Engels, Lubbock, Post, Lippert, Dargun, and others, who wished to produce
for this hypothesis by generalizing individual phenomena, have been confuted even by strong Darwinians: "No community has been found where women alone could rule" (Starke, "Die primitive Familie", Leipzig, 1888, 69) Like the "primitive peoples" themselves, who have been especially quoted as
of this theory, such conditions show themselves to be degenerations. The authenticated reports of the conditions among the civilized races before , as well as the assured results of investigation among "primitive peoples", on the contrary confirm the sentences quoted above. The farther back pre-Christian civilization is traced, the purer and more worthy of
are the marriage relations, and consequently the more advantageous the position of woman appears. The position of the sexes to each other among the degraded, so-called savage, races is, in its essential nature, the same as in civilized races. At the same time important although non-essential differences are not excluded, which arise from the differences in the national spirit which has developed in accordance with geographical conditions. Everywhere is to be found the social subordination of woman, everywhere is seen the division of work between the sexes, whereby the care for the primitive household falls to the woman. But contrary to the natural order, the paternal pre-eminence of the man has developed into unlimited tyranny, and the woman is debased to a slave and drudge without
who gratifies the lusts of the man. Almost without exception
has displaced monogamous marriage. The
of this are given in the reliable work of Wilhelm Schneider, "Die Naturv&lker, Missverst&ndnisse, Missdeutungen and Misshandlungen" (Paderborn, 1885).
Among the civilized nations of antiquity the Egyptians are distinguished by unusual respect for the female sex. Herodotus calls them (II, xxv) peculiar among the nations in this respect. On numerous inscriptions may be read as the title of the wife the expression "Nebtper" (ruler of the House). The tradition whereby woman belongs in the home is re-echoed from the hieroglyphics of the Egyptians down through the ages, and among all peoples. The same principle lies at the basis of the code of
given by , which gives the social conditions in Babylon in the third millennium before . The voluptuous cult, which spread from - and which through
influence poisoned the ancient world, had a particularly injurious effect upon the position of woman. There was no question of the personal
of woman apart from man either here or among the
who were otherwise different in race and customs, even though at times women such as Parysatis, the wife of Darius II, attained great influence over the government of the country. Up to the present time woman's position has remained the same in the ancient civilized countries of eastern , as in , , and , or it has become even more degraded. A. Zimmermann, who was well acquainted with conditions in , stated in 1908: "One of the most terrible abuses is the systematical degradation of the female sex which begins even in early youth" ("Historisch-politische Bl&tter, CXLII, 371). In
per cent of the women of
could not read or write.
, especially, are exposed to contempt and ill-treatment. In
the position of woman, owing to the respect shown to mothers or , makes a better impression. But, at the same time, woman is branded as a second-rate human being from birth to death. The horrible custom of destroying new-born girls has consequently persisted up to the present time, as is
by the reform
issued in 1907 by the viceroy of that time, Juanschikai. According to this, some 70,000 girls are annually killed in the Province of Kiangsi. The binding of the feet is in reality only a means to keep the women at home. The absolute dependence of the wife upon the husband was also maintained as an unyielding custom in old
until the late reorganization, as is
by the "Onna Daigaku" of Kaibara Ekken (1630).
The so-called classical nations of antiquity, the Greeks and Romans, show, as contrasted with the East, a decided dislike to , which legally at least was never recognized among them. This fortunate natural disposition affected favourably the position of woman without, however, securing for her the social position which naturally belongs to her. Even in the best period of the Greeks and Romans the woman only existed on account of the man. The Homeric descriptions of marital
and devotion show this in the most ideal form. In the later era of degeneration woman had almost entirely lost her influence upon public life, according to the sentence in the oration against the hetaera, "Ne&ra, ascribed to Demosthenes: "We have hetaera for pleasure,
for the daily care of the body and wives for the production of full-blooded children and as reliable guardians in the house". The worship of the "virgin Athene" shows probably a dim perception on the part of the Greeks of the exalted position of the virgin independent of man, but led to no practical results favourable to woman. Almost the same is to be said as to the worship of Vesta and of the Vestal virgins among the Romans.
appeared it found woman in the Roman world, and
itself was by no means an exception, in a position of deep
degradation, and under the hard patria potestas of man. This authority had degenerated into tyranny almost more universally than in . Originally , up to the time of the Antonines, limited the power of the father as regards the life and death of his children, and forbade him to
the boys and the
girl. However, the freedom enjoyed by married woman during the empire had as sole result that
increased enormously and prostitution was considered a matter of course. After marriage had lost its
the women exceeded the men in licence, and thus lost even the influence they had possessed in the early, austerely moral
(cf. Donaldson, "Woman, Her Position and Influence in Ancient Greece and Rome and among the Early Christians", 1907).
woman had not the position belonging to her from the beginning, as
said: "Moses by reason of the hardness of your heart permitted you to put away your wives: but from the beginning it was not so" (). A complete reform was not to be expected from the preparatory and temporary importance of the
legislation. Allowance was made for the inclination of Orientals to
by the allowing of additional wives. The one-sided patria potestas the feeling of reverence for the mother was rigidly impressed upon the children. The
respecting this remind us of the
of . Notwithstanding the fame of individual women, as Miriam the sister of Moses, Deborah, and Judith, the Hebrew woman, in general, had no more
than the wo marriage was her sole calling in life (cf. Zschokke, "Das Weib im alten Testament", , 1883; and "Die biblischen Frauen des Alten Testamentes", Freiburg, 1882). The
view of woman without the refining influence of Revelation is evidenced among the followers of
who trace back their descent to Ismael the son of Abraham. Consequently, the
with its many
respecting women is a code that panders to the uncontrolled passions of
man. Outside of marriage, which in the
view is the
of every woman, woman has neither value nor importance. But the conception of marriage as an intimate union so as to constitute one moral , has always been foreign to
(cf. , "Studies of Family Life. A Contribution to Social Science", London, 1886).
The history of the pre-Christian era mentions no far-reaching and successful revolt of women to obtain the improvement of their position. Custom finally became an established habit, and found its strongest defenders among the women themselves. It was the teaching of
which first brought freedom to the female sex, wherever this teaching was seriously taken as the guide of life. His words applied as well to women: "Seek ye first the
and his , and all these things shall be added unto you" (). He restored the original life-long monogamous marriage, raised it to the dignity of a sacrament, and also improved the position for woman in purely earthly matters. The most complete personal duality is expressed in the Apostolic exhortation: "For as many of you as have been
have put on
. . . there is neither male nor female. For ye are all one in " (; cf. ). Most decisive, however, for the social position of woman was the teaching of
on the nobility of freely chosen virginity as contrasted with marriage, to the embracing of which the chosen of both sexes are invited (). According to Paul () the virgins and
do well if they persist in the intention not to marry in order to serve
they indeed do better than those who must divide their attention between care for the husband and the service of . By this
the female sex in particular was placed in an independence of man unthought of before. It granted the unmarried woman value and im and what is more the virgin who renounces marriage from religious motives, acquires precedence above the married woman and enlarges the circle of her motherly influence upon . Elisabeth Gnauck-K&hne says truly: "The esteem of virginity is the
emancipation of woman in the literal sense".
This elevation of woman centres in , the purest virginity and motherhood, both tender and strong, united in wonderful sublimity. The history of the
bears constant testimony of this position of Mary in the history of civilization. The respect for woman rises and falls with the veneration of the . Consequently for art also the Virgin has become the highest representation of the most noble womanhood. This extraordinary elevation of woman in Mary by
is in sharp contrast to the extraordinary degradation of female dignity before . In the renewing of all things in
() the restoration of order must be most thorough at that point where the most extreme disorder had prevailed.
However, this emancipation of woman rests upon the same principles which
used in His great renewal of nature by grace. Nature was not set aside nor destroyed, but was healed and illumined. Consequently the radical natural differences between man and woman and their separate vocations continue to exist. In
also man was to act as the lawful representative of authority, and the lawful defender of , in the , just as in the civil, national, and
community. Therefore, the social position of woman remains in
that of subordination to man, wherever the two sexes by necessity find themselves
to supplement each other in common activity. The woman develops her authority, founded in human dignity, in connection with, and subordinate to, the man in domestic
as the mistress of the home. At the same time the indispensable motherly influence extends from the home over the development of
and custom. While, however, man is called to share directly in the affairs of the state, female influence can be ordinarily exerted upon such matters only indirectly. Consequently, it is only in exceptional cases that in
kingdoms the direct sovereignty is placed in the hands of woman, as is shown by the women who have ascended thrones. In the
this exception is excluded, so far as it refers to the
office. The same Apostle who so energetically maintained the personal independence of woman, forbids to women authoritative speech in the religious assemblies and the supremacy over man (). Nevertheless, personalities like Pulcheria, Hildegarde, , and Teresa of Jesus show how great the extraordinary, indirect influence of woman can be in the domain of the .
From the days of the Apostles,
has never failed to seek and to defend the emancipation of woman in the meaning of its Founder. It must be acknowledged that human passions have frequently prevented the bringing about of a condition fully corresponding with the ideals. The , indissoluble, sacramental marriage, in which the husband is to copy in respect to the wife the
(), was steadily defended for the benefit of the woman against the lawlessness of the ruling class. On this point
presents the same conception of
in contrast to
immorality in words that have become classic: "The
of the emperor are to one effect, those of
to another . . . in the former the restraints upon impurity are left loose for men . . . among us , on the contrary, the
is: What is not permitted to women is also forbidden to men, and the same service (that of ) is also judged by the same standard" ("Ep. lxxvii, ad Ocean.", P.L., XXII, 691). The admiring exclamation of the : "What women there are among the !" is the most eloquent testimony to the power of . The great
praise not only their mothers and sisters, but speak of
women in general in the same terms of respect as the Gospel. On the other hand, the alleged contempt of the
for women is a legend that is kept alive by the lack of
of the Fathers (cf. Mausbach, "Altchristliche und moderne Gedanken &ber Frauenberuf", 7th ed., M&nchen-Gladbach, 1910, 5 sq.).
From the beginning up to the present time, the
religious virginity has produced innumerable hosts of virgins dedicated to
who unite their
with heroic
of their neighbours, and who perform silent deeds of heroism in the nursing of the sick, in the care of the , and in the work of . The modern era since the
has far exceeded the earlier centuries in congregations of women for all branches of
charity and for the alleviation of all forms of misery. Consequently
has opened to woman the greatest possibilities for development. Mary, the sister of , who sat as a disciple at the feet of , has become a model for the training of woman in . The study of the Scriptures, which was equally customary both in the East and the West among
women under the guidance of the , remained during the entire
the inheritance of the . Thus, next to the , the women in the
were more the representatives of learning and
than the men.
The industrial work of women kept pace with the development of civilization. When the guilds arose at the time of the founding of the cities women were not excluded from them. Any
of the parity of the sexes in this domain was excluded by the consideration of the first natural task of woman. Among indigent women
found that the
were those most in need of aid. From the days of the Apostles, the
made special provision for
(; ), a provision that was one of the chief
of the . To the Apostolic era also dates back the institution called the viduate, in which
virtue laboured as Apostolic assistants in the
along with the virgins. In the course of
female orders assumed this work, which is carried on most successfully in the missions for . As, during the conversion to
of the German tribes, Anglo-Saxon women aided , the Apostle of , so today permanent success in the missionary countries cannot be attained without the help of virgins
to . At the end of the ninteenth century some 52,000 , among whom were 10,000 native women, worked in the missions (Louvet, "Les missions cath. du XIXe si&cle", 2nd ed., Paris, 1898).
The Modern Woman Question
It follows from what has been said that the social position of woman is, from the
point of view, only imperfectly set forth in the expression "Woman belongs at home". On the contrary, her peculiar influence is to extend from the home over State and Church. This was maintained at the beginning of the modern era by the Spanish Humanist, Louis Vives, in his work "De institutione feminae christianae" (1523); and was brought out still more emphatically, in terms corresponding to the needs of his day, by Bishop
in his pioneerwork "Education des filles" (1687) This
emancipation of woman is, however, necessarily checked as soon as its fundamental principles are attacked. These principles consist, on the one hand, of the sacramental dignity of the indissoluble marriage between one pair, and in religious,
chosen virginity, both of which spring from the
teaching that man's
home is in a world beyond the grave and that the same sublime aim is appointed for woman as for man. The other fundamental principle consists of the firm adhesion to the natural organic intimate connection of the sexes.
As far back as
antiquity the
attacks on the sacredness of marriage as those of
and Vigilantius, which sought to undermine the reverence for virginity, were refuted by
attack upon
and against the
and indissolubility of marriage, worked permanent injury. The chief result was that woman was again brought into absolute dependence upon man, and the way was made ready for , the results of which press far more heavily upon woman than upon man. After this the natural basis of
and the natural position of woman and the
were shaken to such extent by the
that the germ of the modern woman's suffrage movement is to be sought there. The anti-Christian
of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries led to a complete break with the
conception of
and the state. It was no longer the
or the social principle that was regarded as the basis of the state, but the individual or the ego. Montesquieu, the "father of constitutionalism", made this theory the basis of his "L'Esprit des lois" (1784), and it was sanctioned in the French "Rights of Man". It was entirely
that Olympe de Gouges (d. 1793) and the "citizeness" Fontenay, supported by the Marquis de Condorcet, demanded the unconditional political equality of women with men, or "the
of women". According to these claims every human being has, as a human being, women, as , claim like men with absolute right the same participation in parliament and admission to all public offices. As soon as the leading proposition, though it contradicts nature which knows no sexless human being, is conceded, this corollary must be accepted. Father von Holtzendorff says truly: "Whoever wishes to oppose the right of women to vote must place the principle of parliamentary representation upon another basis . . . as soon as the
to vote is connected only with the individual nature of man, the distinction of sex becomes of no consequence" ("Die Stellung der Frauen", 2nd ed., Hamburg, 1892, 41).
The men of the
forcibly suppressed the claim of the women to the
of men, but in so doing condemned their own principle, which was the basis of the demand of the women. The conception of
as composed of individual atoms leads necessarily to the radical emancipation of women, which is sought at the present time by the German Social Democrats and a section of the women of the middle class. In her book, published in 1792, Mary Wollstonecraft advanced this demand with a certain reserve, while John Stuart Mill in his "The Subjection of Women" (1869) championed the unnatural position of women unconditionally. At the present time the English suffragettes have made a practical application of Mill's views as the standard work of radical emancipation (cf. "A Reply to John Stuart Mill on the Subjection of Women", Philadelphia, 1870).
The introduction of these
into practical life was promoted chiefly by the change in
conditions, particularly as this change was used to the detriment of the people by the tendency of an egotistical . From the beginning of the nineteenth century manufacturing by machinery changed the sphere of woman's labour and of her industries. In manufacturing countries woman can and must buy many things which were formerly produced as a matter of course by female domestic labour. Thus the traditional household labours of woman became limited, especially in the middle class. The necessity arose for many daughters of
to seek work and profit outside of the home. On the other hand, the unlimited freedom of commerce and trade furnished the opportunity of gaining control of the cheap labour of women to make it serve machinery and the
of the great manufacturers. While this change relieved the woman who still sat at home, it laid upon the homeless working-woman intolerable burdens, injurious alike to
and body. On account of smaller wages women were used for the work of men and were driven into competition with men. The system of the cheap hand led not only to a certain slavery of woman, but, in union with the
that concerned itself only with mundane things, it injured the basis of , the .
In this way the actual modern woman question, which is connected at the same time with the livelihood, , and legal position of woman, arose. In most
countries, on account of the emigration arising from the conditions of traffic and occupation, the number of women exceeds that of men to a for instance in
in 1911 there were 900,000 more women than men. In addition, the difficulties of existence cause a considerable number of men to marry at all or too late to found a , while many are kept from marriage by an unchristian morality. The number of unmarried women, or of women who notwithstanding marriage are not cared for and who are double burdened by the cares of the home and of earning a livelihood, is therefore constantly increasing. The last census of occupations in , that of 1907, gave 8,243,498 women who were earning a living in the p this number shows an increase of 3,000,000 over 1895. The statistics of the other countries give proportionate results, although there are hardly two countries in which the woman movement has had exactly the same development. The southern countries of
are coming only gradually under the influence of the movement. A regulation of this movement was and is one of the positive necessities of the times. The methodical and energetic attempts to accomplish this date from the year 1848, although the beginnings in
and North America go back much farther. The attempts to solve the woman question varied with the point of view. Three main parties may be distinguished in the movement for the emancipation of women in the present day: the radical emancipation which is divided into a middle-class and a Social-D the moderate or interconfessiona the Christian party. The radical, middle-class emancipation party regards the Women's Rights Convention held 14 July, 1848, at Seneca Falls, U.S., as the
of its birth. Complete parity of the sexes in every direction with contempt for former tradition is the aim of this party. Unlimited participation in the administration of the country, or the
to the political vote, therefore, holds the first place in its efforts. The questions of
and livelihood are made to depend upon the
to vote. This effort reached its height in the founding of the "International Council of Women", from which sprang in 1904 at
the "International Confederation for Woman's Suffrage". "The Woman's Bible", by Mrs. Stanton, seeks to bring this party into harmony with the . The party has attained its end in the
in the states of
(1909), and Washington (1910), and also in South Australia, New Zealand (1895), and in . In
there has been a limited suffrage for women since 1907. In 1911 Iceland, , , , and
decided to introduce it. In
the suffragists and the suffragettes are battling over it (cf. Mrs. Fawcett, "Women's Suffrage. A short History of a Great Movement", London, 1912.)
in 1847 Luise Otto-Peters () headed the movement, in order at first with generous
to aid the suffering women of the
classes. Her efforts resulted in the "Allgemeiner deutscher Frauenverein" (General Union of German Women), which was founded in 1865, and from which in 1899 the radical "Fortschrittlicher Frauenverein" (Progressive Women's Union) separated, while the Luise Otto party remained moderately liberal. In
it was not until the Third Republic that an actual women's movement arose, a radical section of which, "La Fronde", took part in the first revolution. From the start the Social-Democratic party incorporated in its programme the "equality of all ". Consequently the Social-Democratic women regard themselves as forming one body with the men of their party, while, on the other hand, they keep contemptuously separated from the radical movement among the middle-class women. August Bebel's book, "Die Frau und der Sozialismus", went through fifty editions in the period , and was translated into fourteen languages. In this work the position of woman in the Socialistic state of the future is described. In general the radical middle-class emancipation agrees with the Social-Democratic both in the political and in the
spheres. A
of this is furnished by the works of the
writer Ellen Key, especially by her book "&Uber Ehe und Liebe", which enjoy a very large circulation throughout the world.
This tendency is not compatible with the standard of nature and of the Gospel. It is, however, a
consequence of the one-sided principle of
which, without regard for , came into vogue in what is called the "Rights of Man". If woman is to submit to the
the authoritative determination of which is assigned to man, she has the
to demand a guarantee that man as legislator will not misuse his right. This essential guarantee, however, is only to be found in the unchangeable authoritative rule of Divine
that binds man's . This guarantee is given to women in every form of government that is based on . On the contrary, the proclamation of the "Rights of Man" without regard to
set aside this guarantee and opposed man to woman as the absolute master. Woman's resistance to this was and is an instinctive impulse of moral self-preservation. The "autonomous morality" of
state has made
dependent upon men or man alone far more than the French "Rights of Man". The relativity and mutability of right and morality have been made a fundamental principle in dechristianized . "The principles of , religion, and
are only what they are, so long as they are universally recognized. Should the
of the sum total of
reject some of these principles and feel itself bound by other principles, then a change has taken place in , , and religion" (Oppenheim, "Das Gewissen". Basle, 1898, 47).
Woman is defenceless against such teaching when only men are understood under the "totality of ". Up to now as a matter of fact only men have been eligible in legislative bodies. On the basis of the so-called autonomous morality, however, woman cannot be denied the
to claim this autonomy for herself. , which lays the
upon both sexes to observe an unalterable and like morality, is powerless to give protection to woman in a dechristianized and churchless country. Consequently, it is only by the restoration of
that the rightful and natural relations of man and woman can be once more restored. This
reform of , however, cannot be expected from the radical woman movement, notwithstanding its valuable services for social reform. Besides what has been said, the "movement for the protection of the mother" promoted by it contradicts completely the
conception of marriage. (Cf. Mausbach, "Der christliche Familiengedanke im Gegensatz zur modernen Mutterschutzbewegung", Munster, 1908).
The moderate liberal woman movement is also incapable of bringing about a thorough improvement of the situation, such as the times demand. It certainly attained great results in its efforts for the
elevation of woman, for the reform of the
of women, and for the protection of morality in the first half of the nineteenth century, and has attained still more since 1848 in , North American, and . The names of Jessie Boucherett, Elizabeth Fry, Mary Carpenter, Florence Nightingale, Lady Aberdeen, Mrs. Paterson, Octavia Hill, Elizabeth Blackwell, Josephine Butler, and others in , and the names of Luise Otto, Luise B&chner, Maria Calm, Jeannette Schwerin, Auguste Schmidt, Helene Lange, Katharina Scheven, etc., in , are always mentioned with grateful respect. At the same time this party is liable to uncertain wavering on account of the lack of fixed principles and clearly discerned aims. While these women's
call themselves expressly interdenominational they renounce the motive power of religious conviction and seek exclusively the temporal prosperity of women. Such a setting aside of the highest interests is scarcely compatible with the words of , "Seek ye therefore first the , and his , and all these things shall be added unto you" (), and is all the more incompatible with the teaching of
on marriage and virginity, which is of the highest importance, particularly for the well-being of woman. A successful solution of the woman question is only to be expected from a reorganization of modern conditions in accordance with the principles of , as Anna Jameson () has set forth in the works, "Sisters of Charity" (London, 1855) and "Communion of Labour" (London, 1856). The effort has also frequently been made by
in , America, and
to meet the difficulty in imitation of
charitable work: thus in 1836 the German "Institute of Deaconnesses" was established.
the first attempt to attain a solution of the woman question by
was made by Elizabeth Gnauck-K&hne, who founded the "Evangelisch-sozialer Kongress" (Protestant Social Congress). At the present day this movement has been represented since 1899 by the "Deutsch-evangelisches Frauenbund" and by the women's
of the "Freie kirchlich-soziale Konferenz". A profound
influence upon the woman movement is not to be looked for, however, from these sources.
is, it must be said, a mutilated kind of , in which woman is especially injured by the abrogation of the dedication of virginity to . Still worse is the effect of the constantly increasing decay of , in which the denial of the Divinity of
constantly gains strength. For this reason the
party in the agitation for women's right in predominantly
countries is much smaller than the liberal and radical parties.
women were the last to take up the agitation. The main reason for this is the impregnability of
principles. Owing to this woman's suffrage did not become a burning question as quickly in the purely
countries as in
and religiously mixed ones. The , the indissolubility of sacramental marriage, and the customary charitable works kept in check many difficulties. However, on account of the international character of the movement and the causes which produced it,
women would not finally hold back from co-operation in solving the question, especially as the attack of revolutionary
today is most severe in
countries. For a long time
charity has not sufficed for the needs of the present day. Social aid must supplement legal ordinances for the justifiable demands of women. For this purpose the "ligues des femmes chr&tiennes" were formed in
in 1893; in
"Le f&minisme chr&tien" and "L'action sociale des femmes" were founded in 1895, after the international review, "La femme contemporaine", had been established in 1893. In
the "Katholisches Frauenbund" was founded in 1904, and the "Katholische Reichs-Frauenorganisation" was established in
in 1907, while a woman's
was established in
in 1909. In 1910 the "Katholisches Frauen-Weltbund" (International Association of
Women) was established at
on the insistent urging of the "Ligue patriotique des Fran&aises". Thus an international
women's association exists today, in opposition to the international liberal women's association and the international Social-Democratic union. The
competes with these others in seeking to bring about a social reform for the benefit of women in accordance with the principles of the .
Apart from the light thrown by
principles on this subject, the solution of the tasks of this
association is made easier by the experience already acquired in the woman's movement. As regards the first branch of the woman question, feminine industry, the opinion has constantly gained ground that "notwithstanding all changes in
and social life the general and foremost vocation of women remains that of the wife and mother, and it is therefore above all
to make the female sex capable and efficient for the
arising from this calling" (Pierstorff). How far the opportunities for woman's work for a livelihood are to be enlarged should be made to depend upon the question whether the respective work injures or does not injure the physical provision for motherhood. The earnest warnings of physicians agree in this point with the remonstrances of statesmen who are anxious for national prosperity. Thus the speech of the former president, Roosevelt, at the national congress of American mothers at Washington in 1895 met with approval throughout the world. (Cf. Max von Gruber, "M&dchenerziehung und Rassenhygiene", Munich, 1910). On the other hand,
in particular, in accordance with its traditions, demands from the woman of the present day the most intense interest in working-women of all classes, especially interest in those who work in factories or carry on industrial work at home. The achievements of the North American "Working Women's Protective Union" and of the English "National Union for improving the
of all women of all classes" is given to this aim by the "Verband katholischer Vereine erwerbst&tiger Frauen und M&dchen" (United
Societies of Working-Women, Married and Unmarried) of .
The second branch of the woman question, which of necessity follows directly after that of gaining a livelihood, is that of a suitable . The
places here no barriers that have not already been established by nature.
expresses this
limitation thus: "The learning of women like that of men must be limited to the study of those things which bel The difference in their activities must also give a different direction to their studies." The entrance of women as students in the , which has of late years spread in all countries, is to be judged according to these principles. Far from obstructing such a course in itself,
encourage it. This has led in
to the founding of the "Hildegardisverein" for the aid of
women students of higher branches of learning. Moreover, nature also shows here her undeniable regulating power. There is no need to fear the overcrowding of the academic professions by women.
In the medical calling, which next to teaching is the first to be considered in discussing the professions of women, there are at the present time in
about 100 women to 30,000 men. For the studious woman as for others who earn a livelihood the academic calling is only a temporary position. The sexes can never be on an equality as regards studies pursued at a .
The third branch of the woman question, the social legal position of woman, can, as shown from what has been said, only be decided by
in accordance with the organic conception of , but not in accordance with disintegrating . Therefore the political activity of man is and remains different from that of woman, as has been shown above. It is difficult to unite the direct participation of woman in the political and parliamentary life of the present time with her predominate
as a mother. If it should be desired to exclude married women or to grant women only the actual vote, the equality sought for would not be attained. On the other hand, the indirect influence of women, which in a well-ordered state makes for the stability of the moral order, would suffer severe injury by political equality. The compromises in favour of the direct participation of women in political life which have of late been proposed and sought here and there by
can be regarded, therefore, only as half-measures. The opposition expressed by many women to the introduction of woman's suffrage, as for instance, the New York State Association opposed to Woman "Suffrage", should be regarded by
as, at least, the voice of common sense. Where the right of women to vote is insisted upon by the majority, the
women will
how to make use of it.
On the other hand modern times demand more than ever the direct participation of woman in public life at those points where she should represent the special interests of women on account of her motherly influence or of her industrial independence. Thus female officials are
in the women's departments of factories, official labour bureaux, , and . Experience proves that female officials are also required for the protection of female . The legal question here becomes a question of
which under the name of "M&dchenschutz" (protection of girls) has been actively promoted by women. Indeed much more must be done for it. In 1897 there was founded at , , the "Association catholique internationale des oeuvres de protection de la jeune fille", the labours of which extend to all parts of the world. Thus considered the woman movement is a gratifying sign of the times which indicates the return to a healthy state of social conditions.
Women in English-speaking countries
The movement for what has been called the emancipation of women, which has been so marked a feature of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, has made a deeper impression on the English-speaking countries than on any other. The outcry against the
oppression of women by manmade
has grown ever stronger and stronger, though it must be confessed that every successive improvement in the position of women has also been brought about by manmade . The various disabilities imposed by law or custom on women have gradually been removed by legislation, until, at present, in English-speaking countries scarcely anything is needed to woman's perfect equality to man before the , except the right of suffrage in its widest extent and the admission of women to all national and municipal magistracies, which later will be the inevitable outcome of the removal of all restriction on suffrage. That the gradual amelioration of the legal status of women during the course of ages has removed many crying injustices can not be . Whether, however, all the changes made in their favour will prove unmixed benefits to themselves and to the race, and especially whether the removal of all restriction on suffrage and the admission of women to legislative, judicial, and executive positions of public trust, will be a desirable change in the body politic is
by many of all shades of religious
or no , and probably by the majority of
in official and unofficial positions.
In English the word "woman" is a contraction of "wife-man". This indicates that from the earliest times the Anglo-Saxons believed that woman's proper sphere was the domestic one. The earliest English
treat consequently for the most part of the marriage relation. The so-called "bride-purchase" was not a transaction in barter, but was a contribution on the part of the husband for acq while the "morning-gift" was a settlement made on the bride. This custom, though in use among the ancient Teutonic nations, is also found in old Roman
embodied in Justinian's redaction. King Ethelbert enacted that if a man seduced a wife from her husband the seducer must pay the expenses of the husband's second marriage. As to , King Ina's code recognizes the wife's claim to one-third of her husband's possessions. At a later date King Edmund I decreed that by prenuptial contract the wife could acquire a
to one-half of the
, and, if after her husband's decease she remained unmarried, she was entitled to all his possessions, provided children had been born of the union. Monogamy was strictly enforced, and the
of King Canute decreed as a penalty for
wife's nose and ears should be cut off. Various
were enacted for the protection of female slaves. After the Norman conquest, even more than in Anglo-Saxon times, the tendency of legislation was rather to legislate around husband and wife than between them. The consequence was that the husband as predominant partner acquired greater
over his wife's
and . On his death, however, she always reclaimed her dower-rights and some portion of his possessions. At the same period the Scottish
regulated, according to the woman's rank, a certain sum to be paid to the lord of a manor on the marriage of a tenant's daughter. We may remark here that the
droit du seigneur (the right of the lord to pass the first night with his tenant's bride) is a fable of modern date, of which not the slightest trace is found in the
histories, or literature of any civilized country of . The statute law of
dispenses women from all civil
that are proper to men, such as rendering homage, holding military fiefs, making
of allegiance, accepting sheriff's service, and the
flowing therefrom. They could, however, receive homage and be made constables ofa village or castle if such were not one of the national defences. At fourteen, if an heiress, a woman might have livery of land. If she made a will, it was revoked by her subsequent marriage. A woman could not be a witness in court as to a man's status, and she could not accuse a man of
except in the case that the victim was her husband. Benefit of
was not allowed to women in pre-Reformation times, as the
was repugnant to
feeling. Women might work at trades, and , when restricting workmen to the use of one handicraft, excepted women from this rule. There were many early regulations as to the dress of women, the general prescription being that they should be garbed according to the rank of their husbands.
The legislation of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries has done much to relieve women from the disabilities imposed upon them by the old statute law. The principle of modern English law is the reverse of that obtaining in ancient times, for now the tendency of all enactments is to legislate between husband and wife rather than around them. The consequence is that difference of sex is practically disregarded in modern English law-making, except in a few instances concerning marriage and children. In other matters the only disabilities of women that remain in English law are that they can not succeed to an intestate when male heirs exist and that they are deprived of parliamentary suffrage. In some respects women are in advance of men: thus, women may validly marry at twelve and they may make a valid
settlement at seventeen with the approval of the Court, the respective ages for a male being fourteen and twenty. As to the custody of children, the
may now allow to the mother the full control of the offspring and the right of appointing the guardian or of acting as guardian herself, at least while the child is under sixteen years of age. In the case of
children, while the mother is liable for their support, yet she can obtain an affiliation order from the Court and bind the putative father. Adultery is no crime by English law, and a wife can not obtain a
from her husband on such sole ground, though he may from her. Neither
nor fornication is punished by English law. Judicial separation and maintenance in the case of desertion are remedies for the wife which have been greatly extended and favoured by late legislation. Action for breach of promise to marry may be brought by either the man or woman, and the promise need not be in writing. In the
the acts of Congress deal very sparingly with women. The various departments of the Government employ female clerks and appoint
matrons and nurses for the army. Wives of citizens of the , who might be lawfully naturalized themselves, have the
of citizens. The questions of , franchise, and
have been dealt with by the several state legislatures and there is no uniformity, but the main provisions under these heads will be noticed later.
While in ancient times women were occupied in the industries to some extent, yet these industries were generally of a nature that could be exercised within the home. The advent of the changed industrial conditions of the nineteenth century forced women into other employments in order to obtain the necessaries of life. The advance was, however, very slow. In 1840 Harriet Martineau stated that there were only seven occupations for women in the : , typesetting, bookbinding, cotton factories, household service, keeping boarders, and teaching. All of these occupations were miserably recompensed, but by degrees the better-paid employments in other fields were opened to women. Of the learned professions,
was the first to confer its degrees on female practitioners. The earliest diploma in medicine was conferred in 1849 in New York State, and its recipient was licensed in
in 1859, though the latter country did not bestow a medical diploma on a woman until 1865. At the end of the nineteenth century there were some sixty medical colleges in the
women. At present females are admitted freely to medical
and allowed to join in consultation with male physicians. In 1908 the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons in
admitted women to their diploma and fellowship. In the admission to the profession of law the path of women has been made more difficult. So late as 1903 the British House of Lords decided against the admission of women to the English Bar, though some are employed as solicitors. In the , the
allowed women to act as legal practitioners in 1869, and many of the states, especially in the Western part of the country, now admit them to practice. In
Law Society decided to admit women to act as barristers in 1896. As to the third of the learned professions, divinity, it is obvious that the sacred ministry is closed to
women by Divine ordinance. The , however, began to admit women
as early as 1853 in the
and, at present, the , , United Brethren, Universalists, , Free , , , and Free
women to their ministry. In 1910 the Free Christian denomination in
appointed a female minister. Journalism and the arts are also open to women, and they have achieved considerable distinction in those fields.
As to the ,
and spinsters have equal
with men according to English law. A married woman may acquire, hold, and dispose of real and personal
as her own separate . For her contracts her own separate
is held liable, as also for antenuptial
and agreements, unless a contrary liability can be . The husband can not make any settlement regarding his wife's
unless she confirms it. If a married woman has separate
she is liable for the support of , grandparents, children, and even husband, if they have no other means of subsistence. Laws have also been made to protect a wife's
from her husband's influence. In most states of the American Union the proprietary emancipation of women has gone on steadily as in Great Britain. Connecticut, in 1809, was the first state to empower married women to make a will, and New York, in 1848, secured to married women the control of their separate . These two states have been followed by nearly all the others in granting both privileges.
differ in the various states, but the equality of women with men as to grounds for
is generally recognized, and alimony is usually accorded to the wife in generous measure. In the practical application of civil and criminal law in the
the tendency of late years has been to favour women more than men.
In no field of public endeavour has there raged a fiercer conflict over women's
than in that of suffrage. In ancient times, even, women had acted as queens regnant, and abbesses had discharged territorial , but the general
of women mixing in public life was discountenanced. The latter half of the nineteenth century saw the movement for the political enfranchisement of women become a serious factor in the body politic. The
was not entirely new for Margaret Brent, a , had claimed the
to sit in the
Assembly in 1647, and in revolutionary times, Mercy Otis Warren, Abigail Adams, and others had demanded direct representation for women taxpayers. In , Mary Astell in 1697 and Mary Wollstonecraft in 1790 were champions of women's . After the middle of the nineteenth century women's suffrage
were formed in Great Britain and the , with the result that many men were converted to the
of women exercising the right of ballot. At the present time women can vote for all officers in Great Britain, except for members of Parliament. They have full suffrage in
and Australia, and municipal suffrage in most provinces of
North America. In the
women have equal suffrage with men in six States: , , , , Washington, and
(1912). Several other states have adopted women suffrage amendments for submission to the people. Thirty states have conferred
suffrage on women, and five grant tax-paying women the
to vote on questions of taxation. There is a National American Women Suffrage Association with headquarters in New York City, but it must also be noted that in 1912 a national association of women opposed to female suffrage was also organized in that city.
has made no
pronouncement on the question of women's
in the present meaning of that term. It has from the beginning vindicated the dignity of womanhood and declared that in spiritual matters man and woman are equal, according to the words of : "There is neither male nor female, for you are all one in " (). The
has also jealously guarded the
of home life, now so disastrously infringed by the
, and while upholding the husband's headship of the
has also vindicated the position of the mother and wife in the household. Where
and womanly dignity are not violated in other fields of action, the
opposes no barrier to woman's progress. As a rule, however, the opinions of the majority of
seem to hold the political activity of women in disfavour. In
some distinguished , among them , favoured women's suffrage. His Eminence declared: "I believe that the extension of the parliamentary franchise to women upon the same conditions as it is held by men would be a just and beneficial measure, tending to raise rather than to lower the course of national legislation."
in Australia held similar views: "What does voting mean to a woman? As a mother, she has a special interest in the legislation of her country, for upon it depends the welfare of her children . . . . The woman who thinks she is making herself unwomanly by voting is a silly creature" (Quotations from "The Tablet", London, 16 May, 1912). The
seem rather to favour women's abstention from politics, and this is also the attitude of most American , at least as far as public pronouncements are concerned. Several American
have, however, expressed themselves in favour of woman suffrage at least in municipal affairs. In Great Britain a
Women's Suffrage Society was organized in 1912.
Whatever may be the attitude of the
towards the political
of women, there can be no
of their earnest co-operation in all movements for the higher
of women and their social amelioration. In addition to the academies and colleges of the teaching sisterhoods, houses for
branches have organized at the Catholic University at Washington and at
in . Women are multiplying in the learned professions in all English-speaking countries. In work along social lines the
has always had its sisterhoods, whose self-sacrifice and devotion in the cause of the poor and suffering have been beyond all praise. Of late,
women of every station in life have awakened to the great possibilities for good in social work of every kind, and associations such as the
Women's League in
and The United Irishwomen in
have been formed. In the
a movement which has the active support of the
and the approval of the former
delegate, Cardinal Falconio, is on foot (1912) to form a national federation of
women's associations.
Women in canon law
I. Ulpian (Dig., I, 16, 195) gives a celebrated rule of law which most canonists have embodied in their works: "Women are ineligible to all civil and public offices, and therefore they cannot be judges, nor hold a magistracy, nor act as lawyers, judicial intercessors, or procurators." Public offices are those in civil offices, those connected otherwise with municipal affairs. The reason given by canonists for this prohibition is not the levity, weakness, or fragility of the female sex, but the preservation of the modesty and dignity peculiar to woman. For the preservation of this same modesty many regulations have been made concerning female apparel. Thus, women may not use male attire, a prohibition already found in the
(). The canons add, however, that the assumption of the dress of men would b}