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3秒自动关闭窗口Culture of The Philippines
The Philippines
Culture Name
Orientation
Identification.
The Republic of the Philippines was named the Filipinas to honor King
Philip the Second of Spain in 1543. The Philippine Islands was the name
used before independence.
Location and Geography.
The Republic of the Philippines, a nation of 7,107 islands with a total
area of 111,830 square miles (307,055 square kilometers), is located on
the Pacific Rim of Southeast Asia. Two thousand of its islands are
inhabited. Luzon, the largest island with one-third of the land and half
the population, is in the north. Mindanao, the second largest island, is
in the south. The Philippines are 1,152 miles (1,854 kilometers) long from
north to south. The width is 688 miles (1,107 kilometers). There are no
the country is bordered on the west by the South China
Sea, on the east by the Philippine Sea, on the south by the Celebes Sea,
and on the north by the Luzon Strait, which separates the country from its
nearest neighbor, Taiwan. The closest nations to the south are Malaysia
and Indonesia. Vietnam and China are the nearest neighbors on the mainland
The islands are volcanic in origin. Mount Mayon in southern Luzon erupted
in 2000. Mount Pinatubo in central Luzon erupted in 1991 and 1992. Both
eruptions caused destruction of villages and farms and displaced thousands
of people from their tribal homelands. Because the country is volcanic,
the small islands have a mountainous center with coastal plains. Luzon has
a broad central valley in the northern provinces along the Cagayan River
and plains in the midlands near Manila, the capital. Mindanao and Panay
also have central plains. Northern Luzon has two major mountain ranges:
the Sierra Madres on the eastern coast and the Cordilleras in the center.
The highest peak is Mount Apo in Mindanao at 9,689 feet (2,954 meters).
The weather is hot because of the country's closeness to the
equator. The temperatures are constant except during typhoons. The dry
season is from January to J the wet season with monsoon rains is from
July to December. Temperatures are cooler in November through January,
dropping below 30 degrees Celsius (85 degrees Fahrenheit). The summer
months of April and May have temperatures in excess of 39 degrees Celsius
(100 degrees Fahrenheit). Typhoons occur from June through November.
Demography.
The estimated population in July 2000 was eighty-one million. The average
life expectancy is sixty-seven years. Four percent of the population is
over age sixty-five. The most populous area is Metropolitan Manila, where
eight million to ten million people live.
Linguistic Affiliation.
The official languages are Filipino, which is based on Tagalog with words
from other native languages, and English. Since only 55 percent of
residents speak Filipino fluently, English is used in colleges,
universities, the courts, and the government. The country's seventy
to eighty dialects are derived from Malay languages. Three dialects are of
national importance: Cebuano in the southern islands, Ilocano in the
north, and Tagalog, the language of the National Capital Region. When
Tagalog was chosen as the basis for a national language, Cebuanos refused
to use Filipino. "Taglish," a mixture of Filipino and
English, is becoming a standard language. Filipinos are proud that their
country has the third largest number of English speakers in the world.
Filipino English includes many Australian and British terms. It is a
formal language that includes words no longer commonly used in American
English. Spanish was taught as a compulsory language until 1968 but is
seldom used today. Spanish numbers and some Spanish words are included in
the dialects.
Philippines
The dependence on English causes concern, but since Filipino does not have
words for scientific or technological terms, English is likely to remain
in common use.
Symbolism.
National symbols have been emphasized since independence to create a
sense of nationhood. The Philippine eagle, the second largest eagle in the
world, is the national bird. Doctor Jose Rizal is the national hero. Rizal
streets and statues of Rizal are found in most towns and cities. Several
municipalities are named for Rizal. The most prominent symbol is the flag,
which has a blue horizontal band, a red horizontal band, and a white
field. The flag is flown with the blue band at the top in times of peace
and the red band at the top in times of war. Flag ceremonies take place
once a week at all governmental offices. Schools have a flag ceremony each
morning. All traffic stops while the flag is being honored. The national
anthem is sung, a national pledge is recited in Filipino, and the
provincial hymn is sung.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation.
Early inhabitants are believed to have reached the area over land bridges
connecting the islands to Malaysia and China. The first people were the
Negritos, who arrived twenty-five thousand years ago. Later immigrants
came from Indonesia. After the land bridges disappeared, immigrants from
Indo-China brought copper and bronze and built the rice terraces at Benaue
in northern Luzon. The next wave came from Malaysia and is credited with
developing agriculture and introducing
(water buffalo) as draft animals. Trade with China began in the first
Filipino ores and wood were traded for finished products.
In 1380, the "Propagation of Islam" began in the Sulu
Islands and Mindanao, where Islam remains the major religion. The Muslim
influence had spread as far north as Luzon when Ferdinand Magellan arrived
in 1521 to claim the archipelago for Spain. Magellan was killed soon
afterward when a local chief, Lapu-Lapu, refused to accept Spanish rule
and Christianity. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi landed in the Philippines in
1564 and consolidated Spanish power, designating Manila as the capital in
1572. Roman Catholic religious orders began Christianizing the populace,
but the Sulu Islands and Mindanao remained Muslim. The Spanish governed
those areas through a treaty with the sultan of Mindanao. The Spanish did
not attempt to conquer the deep mountain regions of far northern Luzon.
The occupation by Spain and the unifying factor of Catholicism were the
first steps in creating a national identity. Filipinos became interested
in attaining independence in the middle of the nineteenth century. In the
1890's, the novels of José Rizal, his exile to a remote
island, and his execution by the Spaniards created a national martyr and a
point for groups seeking independence. Armed attacks and propaganda
increased, with an initial success that waned as Spanish reinforcements
arrived. The Spanish-American War of 1898 and the defeat of the Spanish
fleet in Manila Bay led the Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo to declare
independence from Spain. The United States paid twenty million dollars to
the Spanish for the Philippines under the Treaty of Paris. Aguinaldo did
not accept United States occupation and fought until the Filipino forces
were defeated. In 1902, the Philippines became an American territory, with
the future president William Howard Taft serving as the first territorial
governor. Over the next two decades, American attitudes toward the
Philippines changed and the islands were given commonwealth status in
1933. Independence was promised after twelve years, with the United States
retaining rights to military bases.
The Japanese invaded the Philippines early in 1942 and ruled until 1944.
Filipino forces continued to wage guerrilla warfare. The return of U.S.
forces ended the Japanese occupation. After the war, plans for
independence were resumed. The Republic of the Philippines became an
independent nation on 4 July 1946.
The new nation had to recover economically from the destruction caused by
World War II. Peasant groups wanted the huge land holdings encouraged by
the Spanish and Americans broken apart. In 1955, Congress passed the first
law to distribute land to farmers.
Ferdinand Marcos governed from 1965 to 1986, which was the longest period
for one president. From 1972 to 1981, he ruled by martial law. Marcos was
reelected in 1982, but a strong opposition movement emerged. When the
leader of the opposition, Benigno Aquino, was murdered after his return
from exile in the United States, his wife, Corazon Aquino, entered the
presidential race in 1986. Marcos claimed victory but was accused of
fraud. That accusation and the withdrawal of United States support for
Marcos led to "People Power," a movement in which the
residents of Manila protested the Marcos regime. The Filipino military
supported Aquino, who was declared president, and the Marcos family went
into exile in Hawaii.
The Aquino years saw the passage of a new constitution with term limits
and the withdrawal of U.S. military forces in 1991, when the government
did not grant a new lease for United States use of military bases.
Fidel Ramos, the first Protestant president, served from 1991 to 1998.
Major problems included a fall in the value of the peso and the demands of
Muslim groups in Mindanao for self-determination and/or independence. The
government offered self-governance and additional funds, and the movement
Joseph "Erap" Estrada was elected for one six-year term in
1999. The demands of the Muslim rebels escalated, culminating with the
kidnaping of twenty-nine people by the Abu Sayyaf group in April 2000.
Late in the year 2000, impeachment proceedings were brought against
Estrada, who was charged with financial corruption.
National Identity.
Filipinos had little sense of national identity until the revolutionary
period of the nineteenth century. The word "Filipino" did
not refer to native people until the mid-nineteenth century. Before that
period, the treatment of the islands as a single governmental unit by
Spain and the conversion of the population to Catholicism were the
unifying factors. As a desire for independence grew, a national flag was
created, national heroes emerged, and a national anthem was written. A
national language was designated in 1936. National costumes were
established. The sense of a national identity is fragile, with true
allegiance given to a kin group, a province, or a municipality.
Ethnic Relations.
Ninety-five percent of the population is of Malay ancestry. The other
identifiable group is of Chinese ancestry. Sino-Filipinos are envied for
their success in business. They have maintained their own schools, which
stress Chinese traditions.
Seventy to eighty language groups separate people along tribal lines.
Approximately two million residents are designated as cultural minority
groups protected by the government. The majority of those sixty ethnic
groups live in the mountains of northern Luzon. People whose skin is
darker are considered less capable, intelligent, and beautiful.
Descendants of the Negritos tribe are regarded as inferior.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space
The architecture of the islands shows Spanish influence. Spanish brick
churches built during the colonial era dominate the towns. The churches
are large and different from traditional construction. It is difficult to
imagine how the indigenous population in the seventeenth century was able
to build them.
Filipino families enjoy close kin bonds, and extended families
living together are the norm.
Seaports and government centers had a larger proportion of Spanish
buildings with wide verandas and tiled roofs. Towns destroyed during the
liberation campaign in World War II, especially in central and northern
Luzon, were rebuilt using wood. Areas of Manila destroyed during World War
II have been restored to their historical Spanish appearance. Newer
buildings in Manila range from standard multistory offices to
Western-style gated housing areas for the affluent, to tenements and
Traditional houses in rural areas are
huts constructed of bamboo and roofed with leaves from palm trees or
corrugated metal. Cinder blocks are the most commonly building material
used. The blocks are plastered and painted on the inside and outside when
funds permit. Plasterers add decorative touches to the exterior. Older
houses have a "dirty" open-air kitchen for food preparation.
Newer, larger houses designate a room as a dirty kitchen in contrast to
the "clean" kitchen, which has an eating area where utensils
are stored. Enclosed kitchens provide a roof over the cook and keep dogs
and chickens from wandering into the cooking area. The roof is pitched so
that rain will run off. Middle-class houses and commercial buildings have
tiled roofs.
Food and Economy
Food in Daily Life.
Filipinos do not consider it a meal if rice is not served. Plain steamed
rice is the basis of the diet. Three crops a year are harvested to provide
enough rice for the population, and the government keeps surpluses stored
for times of drought. Salt water and freshwater of fish and shellfish are
eaten daily, served either fresh or salted. Fish, chicken and pork are
usually fried, although people are becoming more health-conscious and
often choose alternative methods of cooking. Garlic is added to food
because it is considered healthful. Filipino food is not spicy. All food
is cooked on gas burners or wood or charcoal fires and is allowed to get
cold before it is eaten. Rice is cooked first, since it takes longer. When
it is ready, rice will be placed on the table while the next items of the
meal are prepared and served.
Table knives are not used. Forks and spoons are used for dining. The food
is eaten from a spoon. The traditional method of placing food on a banana
leaf and eating with one's hands is also used throughout the
country. It is acceptable to eat food with one's hands at
restaurants as well as in the home.
Breakfast is served at 6
and consists of food left over from the night before. It is not reheated.
Eggs and sausage are served on special occasions.
Small buns called
pan de sol
may be purchased from vendors early in the morning.
At midmorning and in the afternoon, people eat
Since Filipinos are fond of sweet foods, a mixture of instant coffee,
evaporated milk, and sugar may be served. Coca-Cola is very popular. Sweet
rolls, doughnuts, or a noodle dish may be available. Lunch is a light meal
with rice and one other dish, often a fish or meat stew. Fish, pork, or
chicken is served at dinner with a soup made of lentils or vegetables.
Fatty pork is a favorite. Portions of small cubes of browned pork fat are
considered a special dish.
Fruits are abundant all year. Several kinds of banana are eaten, including
red and green varieties. Mangoes, the national fruit, are sweet and juicy.
A fruit salad with condensed milk and coconut milk is very popular on
special occasions.
Vegetables are included as part of a soup or stew. Green beans and
potatoes are commonly eaten foods. The leaves of
a sweet potato, are used as a salad and soup ingredient.
a bland bright purple potato, is used as a colorful ingredient in cakes
and ice cream.
Halo-halo,
which means "mixture," is a popular dessert that consists
of layers of corn kernels, ice cream, small gelatin pieces, cornflakes and
shaved ice.
a very salty fish sauce, is placed on the table to be added to any of the
Fast food has become part of the culture, with national and international
chains in many towns. All meals at fast-food restaurant include rice,
although French fries also tend to be on the menu. Banana ketchup is
preferred, although the international chains serve tomato ketchup. A
national chain, Jollibee, has entered the U.S. market with a restaurant in
California, where many Filipino immigrants live. The company plans to
expand to other cities with Filipino populations.
Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions.
Léchon,
a suckling pig that has been roasted until the skin forms a hard brown
crust, is served at important occasions. The inside is very fatty. Strips
of the skin with attached fat are considered the best pieces. The
importance of the host and the occasion are measured by the amount of
léchon.
served. Blood drained from the pig is used to make
Sticky rice prepared with coconut milk and sugarcane syrup is wrapped in
banana leaves. Glutinous rice is grown especially for use in this
traditional dessert.
Gin and beer are available for men and are accompanied by
a duck egg with an embryo. Dog meat is a delicacy throughout the country.
It is now illegal to sell dog meat at markets because cases of rabies have
occurred when the brains were eaten.
Basic Economy.
Agriculture, forestry, and fishing are the occupations of 40 percent of
the thirty million people who are employed. Light manufacturing,
construction, mining and the service industries provide the remainder of
employment opportunities. The unemployment rate is over 9 percent. Fifty
percent of the population lives below the poverty line. The Asian
financial crisis resulted in a lack of jobs, and the drought period of the
El Niño weather cycle has reduced the number of agricultural
positions. It is not uncommon for people to "volunteer" as
workers in the health care field in hopes of being chosen to work when a
position becomes available. People work seven days a week and take
additional jobs to maintain or improve their lifestyle or pay for a
child's education. Eight hundred thousand citizens work overseas,
primarily as merchant seamen, health care, household, or factory workers
in Saudi Arabia, Hong Kong, and Taiwan. Over Seas Workers (OSWs) have a
governmental agency that looks after their interests. Laws govern hours of
work, insurance coverage, and vacation time, but workers may be exploited
and mistreated. Recruitment centers are found in all large municipalities.
OSWs send $7 billion home each year, providing 4 percent of the gross
domestic product.
Land Tenure and Property.
Nineteen percent of the land is arable and 46 percent consists of forests
and woodlands. Deforestation by legal and illegal loggers with no tree
replacement has reduced the number of trees. Large amounts of arable land
remain in the hand of absentee landowners who were given land grants
during the Spanish colonial period. Although land reform legislation has
been passed, loopholes allow owners to retain possession. Those
responsible for enacting and enforcing the legislation often come from the
same families that own the land. Peasant groups such as the HUKs
(People's Liberation Army, or
Hukbong Magpapayang Bayan
) in the 1950s and the NPA (New People's Army) at the present time
have resorted to guerrilla tactics to provide land for the poor. There is
an ongoing demand to clear forests to provide farmland. The clearing
technique is slash and burn. Environmentalists are concerned because
timber is destroyed at random, eliminating the homes of endangered species
of plants and animals.
Commercial Activities.
The local market is a key factor in retail trade. Larger municipalities
have daily markets, while smaller communities have
Philippine children playing on Guimaras Island. Young children
typically live with grandparents or aunts for extended periods.
markets once or twice a week. Trade at the market is conducted in a
barter system.
relationships are established at the marketplace so that the buyer
returns to the same vendor. Markets are divided into "dry"
markets where clothing and household items are sold and
"wet" markets where food is sold.
establishments are small neighborhood stores. They are convenient since
they have packaged products and are in the neighborhood, but no fresh
foods are available there. In larger towns, supermarkets with fixed prices
are adjacent to the market. Electronic equipment, furniture, and clothing
have fixed prices and are sold in stores or at kiosks. Shopping malls are
found in most provincial capitals. Malls with Western shops are found
throughout metropolitan Manila.
Major Industries.
Metropolitan Manila is the primary manufacturing area, with 10 percent of
the population living there. Manila and the adjacent ports are the best
equipped to ship manufactured goods. Manufacturing plants produce
electrical and electronic components, chemicals, clothing, and machinery.
The provinces produce processed foods, textiles, tobacco products, and
construction materials. Manufacturing in the home continues to be common
in remote areas.
Rice, bananas, cashews, pineapple, mangoes, and coconut products are the
agricultural products exported to neighboring countries. Exported
manufactured products include electronic equipment, machinery, and
clothing. The United States, members of the European Union, and Japan are
the major trading partners. Imports consists of consumer goods and fuel.
The country has mineral and petroleum reserves that have not been
developed because of the mountainous terrain and a lack of funding.
Transportation of products is difficult since the highway system beyond
metropolitan Manila consists of two-lane roads that are under constant
repair and sometimes are washed out by typhoons. Interisland shipping
costs add to the expense of manufacturing. Congress, governmental
agencies, and the financial community are attempting to find solutions to
these problems. The rate of road construction is accelerating and a light
rail system is planned. Filipino membership in the Association of South
East Asian Nations (ASEAN), a regional trade organization, is an important
factor in the development of trade policies.
Division of Labor.
In rural areas, lack of mechanization causes the entire family to work in
the rice fields. Planting rice seedlings, separating them, replanting,
and changing water levels in the fields are done by hand and are
labor-intensive. Crops such as tobacco, corn, and sugarcane demand full
family participation for short periods during the planting and harvest
In the cities, traditional roles common to industrialized countries are
followed. Men perform heavy physical tasks, while women work as clerks and
teachers and in health care.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes.
Filipinos believe in the need for social acceptance and feel that
education can provide upward mobility. Color of skin, beauty, and money
are the criteria that determine a person's social position. Light
coloring is correlated with intelligence and a light-skinned attractive
person will receive advancement before his or her colleagues. Family
position and patron-client associations are useful in achieving success.
Government officials, wealthy friends, and community leaders are sponsors
at hundreds of weddings and baptisms each year. Those connections are of
great importance.
There is a gap between the 2 percent of the population that is wealthy and
the masses who live in poverty. The middle class feels too obligated to
those in power to attempt to make societal changes.
The people of the Philippines enjoy watching professional basketball
played by American professional teams and teams in Filipino professional
leagues. Basketball courts are the only sport-site found in every
and school. Cockfights are a popular sport among men. Cocks have metal
spurs attached to the leg just above the foot. The contest continues until
one of the cocks is unable to continue fighting or runs away. Cuneta
Astrodome in metropolitan Manila is used for both professional basketball
and cockfights. Mah-jongg, a Chinese game played with tiles, is very
popular, especially with women.
Symbols of Social Stratification.
Money to buy consumer goods is an indicator of power. Wealthy people lead
western lifestyles. They travel abroad frequently and pride themselves on
the number of Westerners they have as friends. Since few people outside
Manila have a family car, owning a vehicle is a clear statement of a high
social level. Houses and furnishings show a person's social
position. Upholstered furniture instead of the traditional wooden couches
and beds, rows of electrical appliances that are never used and area rugs
are all important.
Women above the poverty level have extensive wardrobes. Sending
one's children to the best schools is the most important indicator
of social position. The best schools often are private schools and are
quite expensive.
Political Life
Government.
The country has a republican form of government that was developed during
the commonwealth period. It contains three branches: executive,
legislative, and judicial. The first constitution, based on the United
States Constitution, was written in 1935. When President Marcos declared
martial law in 1972, that constitution was replaced by another one
providing for a head of state, a prime minister, and a unicameral
legislature. The president had the power to dissolve the legislature,
appoint the prime minister, and declare himself prime minister. A new
constitution was approved in a national referendum in 1987. It was similar
to the 1935 constitution but included term limitations. The 221 members of
the House may serve three consecutive three-year terms, which is also the
case for provincial governors. The twenty-four senators, who are elected
at large, may serve two consecutive six-year terms. The president serves
one six-year term, but the vice president may serve two consecutive
six-year terms. The president and vice president do not run on the same
ticket and may be political opponents.
The seventy provinces have governors but no legislative bodies. Over sixty
cities have been created by legislation. Cityhood is desirable since
cities are funded separately from the provinces so that additional federal
money comes into the area. Each province is divided into municipalities.
The smallest unit of government is the barangay, which contains up to two
hundred dwellings and an elementary school. The barangay captain
distributes funds at the local level.
Leadership and Political Officials.
Charges of corruption, graft, and cronyism are common among government
officials at all levels. People accept cronyism and the diversion of a
small percentage of funds as natural. Rewriting the constitution to
eliminate term limits and establishing a strong two-party system are the
reforms that are discussed most often. Politicians move from party to
party as the needs of their constituencies dictate because the political
parties have no ideologies.
Many of the people who are currently active in politics were politically
active in the commonwealth era. Men of rank in the military also move into
A house belonging to a family of the Igorot tribe in Bontoc. The
Philippines are home to approximately sixty ethnic groups in seventy
to eighty language groups.
political arena. Joseph Estrada, whose term as president is
1998&#x, entered the public eye as a popular film star. He then
became the mayor of a large city and went on to become vice president in
the Ramos administration. Previous presidents have had political or
military backgrounds, with the exception of Corazon Aquino, the president
from 1986 to 1992, who became politically active after her husband was
assassinated.
Social Problems and Control.
The formal system of law mirrors that of the United States. A police
force, which has been part of the army since 1991, and a system of trials,
appeals, and prisons are the components of the apparatus for dealing with
crime. Theft is the most common crime. Because the Philippines has a cash
economy, thieves and pick-pockets can easily gain access to thousands of
pesos. Petty thieves are unlikely to be apprehended unless a theft is
discovered immediately. Another common crime is murder, which often is
committed under the influence of alcohol. Guns are readily available.
Incest is punished severely if the victim is younger than fifteen years
old. Capital punishment by lethal injection was restored during the Ramos
administration. Six executions of men convicted of incest have taken place
since 1998. Illicit drugs are found throughout the archipelago but are
more common in the capital area and the tourist centers. Marijuana and
hashish are exported.
An ongoing concern is the desire for autonomy among tribal groups.
Mindanoao and the Cordilleras Autonomous Region, where indigenous groups
are located, are allowed a greater degree of local control and receive
additional funds from the government. Muslim Mindanao has a strong
separatist movement. Terrorist groups have developed in support of the
movement. In the year 2000, terrorists engaged in acts of kidnaping for
ransom, a crime that is common in the country. The government deployed
additional military forces to attack terrorist strongholds.
Military Activity.
The armed forces consist of an army, a navy, a coast guard, and an air
force. The army includes the Philippines National P the navy
includes the marines. Military service is voluntary. Public respect for
the military is high. Military expenditures account for 1.5 percent of the
gross domestic product. Current military activity is focused on terrorist
activity in Mindanao. The oil-rich Spratly Islands in the South China Sea
are an area of concern that is monitored by the navy. The Spratlys belong
to the Philippines but are claimed by several other countries, and the
Chinese have unsuccessfully
attempted to establish a base there. In 1998, the Philippines signed a
visiting forces agreement that allows United States forces to enter the
country to participate in joint training maneuvers.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
Land reform has been a concern since independence. Spanish and American
rule left arable land concentrated in the hands of 2 percent of the
population and those owners will not give up their land without
compensation. Attempts made to provide land, such as the resettlement of
Christian farmers in Mindanao in the 1950s, have not provided enough land
to resolve the problem. Until land reform takes place, poverty will be the
nation's primary social problem. Eighty percent of the rural
population and half the urban population live in poverty. Governmental
organizations provide health clinics and medical services, aid in
establishing micro businesses such as craft shops and small factories, and
offer basic services for the disabled. The number of beggars increases in
times of high unemployment. People consider it good luck to give money to
a poor person, and so beggars manage to survive.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
While nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) work throughout the country to
solve social problems, they are most visible in metropolitan Manila, where
they work with squatters. The rural poor gravitate to urban areas, cannot
find a place to live, and settle in public areas, riverbanks and garbage
dumps. It is estimated that one of every four residents of metropolitan
Manila is a squatter. Shanty towns are so large that in 2000, when rains
from two successive typhoons made garbage dumps collapse, over two hundred
people were buried alive as their homes were swept away. Nongovernmental
organizations exert pressure on the government for land on which squatters
can build permanent housing. Forced evictions are another target of NGOs,
since an alternative place to live is not provided.
Volunteer agencies from the United States, the United Kingdom, the
Netherlands, Germany, Denmark and Japan work with NGOs and governmental
agencies. Projects to help children and meet environmental needs are the
focus of volunteer efforts. Volunteer agencies are supervised by the
Philippine National Volunteer Service Coordinating Agency.
A farmhouse overlooks vegetables growing on a terraced field. In
these volcanic islands, mountains are common.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Division of Labor by Gender.
Traditional roles prevail in rural areas, where men cultivate the land
but the entire family is involved in planting and harvesting the crops.
Women work in gardens and care for the house and children as well as
barnyard animals. In urban areas, men work in construction and machine
upkeep and as drivers of passenger vehicles. Women work as teachers,
clerks, owners of
stores, marketers of produce and health care providers. Occupational
gender lines are blurred since men also work as nurses and teachers. In
the professions, gender lines are less important. Women attorneys, doctors
and lawyers are found in the provinces as well as in urban areas.
The Relative Status of Women and Men.
While families desire male children, females are welcomed to supply help
in the house and provide a home in the parents' old age.
Women's rights to equality and to share the family inheritance with
male siblings are firmly established and are not questioned. The oldest
daughter is expected to become an OSW to provide money for the education
of younger siblings and for the needs of aging family members. Women are
the familial money managers. The wedding
ceremony can include the gift of a coin from the groom to the bride to
acknowledge this role.
Since personal relationships and wealth are considered the road to
success, women have an equal opportunity to achieve. Winners of beauty
pageants are likely to succeed in the business and professional world,
especially if the pageant was at an international level.
Marriage, Family and Kinship
Marriage is a civil ceremony that is conducted city offices. A religious
ceremony also is performed. The ceremony is similar to those in the United
States with the addition of sponsors. Principal sponsors are friends and
relatives who have positions of influence in the community. The number of
principal sponsors attests to the popularity and potential success of a
couple. It also reduces a couple's expenses, since each principal
sponsor is expected to contribute a substantial amount of cash. Members of
the wedding party are secondary sponsors who do not have to provide funds.
Arranged marriages have not been part of Filipino life. However, men are
expected to marry and if a man has not married by his late twenties,
female relatives begin introducing him to potential brides. The median age
for marriage is twenty-two. Young professionals wait until their late
twenties to marry, and engagements of five to seven years are not
uncommon. During this period, the couple becomes established in jobs, pays
for the education of younger siblings, and acquires household items. A
woman who reaches the age of thirty-two without marrying is considered
past the age for marriage. Women believe that marriage to a wealthy man or
a foreigner will guarantee happiness. Divorce is illegal, but annulment is
available for the dissolution of a marriage. Reasons for annulment include
physical incapacity, physical violence, or pressure to change one's
religious or political beliefs. Interfaith marriages are rare.
Domestic Unit.
The extended family is the most important societal unit, especially for
women. Women's closest friendships come from within the family.
Mothers and daughters who share a home make decisions concerning the home
without conferring with male family members. One child remains in the
family home to care for the parents and grandparents. This child, usually
a daughter, is not necessarily unmarried. The home may include assorted
children from the extended family, and single aunts and uncles. Several
houses may be erected on the same lot to keep the family together.
Childcare is shared. Fathers carry and play with children but are unlikely
to change diapers. Grandparents who live in the home are the primary care
givers for the children since both parents generally work. Preschool
grandchildren who live in other communities may be brought home for their
grandparents to raise. Indigent relatives live in the family circle and
provide as household and childcare help. Young people may work their way
through college by exchanging work for room and board. Family bonds are so
close that nieces and nephews are referred to as one's own children
and cousins are referred to as sisters and brothers. Unmarried adult women
may legally adopt one of a sibling's children.
Inheritance.
Inheritance laws are based on those in the United States. These laws
provide that all children acknowledged by a father, whether born in or out
of wedlock, share equally in the estate. Females share equally with males.
Kin Groups.
Because of the closeness of the immediate family, all familial ties are
recognized. Anyone who is remotely related is known as a cousin.
Indigenous tribes live in clan groups. Marriage into another clan may mean
that the individual is considered dead to his or her clan.
People have a strong sense of belonging to a place. A family that has
lived in metropolitan Manila for two generations still regards a
municipality or province as its home. New Year's Day, Easter, and
All Saint's Day are the most important family holidays. Bus traffic
from Manila to the provinces increases dramatically at these times, with
hundreds of extra buses taking people home to their families.
Socialization
Infant Care.
Infants are raised by family members. Young children are sent to live
with their grandparents or aunts for extended periods. People who live
outside the country leave their children with the family for the preschool
Infants spend their waking time in someone's arms until they can
walk. They are part of every activity and learn by observation. Someone
will remain in the room with them when they sleep. Infant mortality is
high, and so great care is taken of babies. Helpers and older sisters
assist with the dayto-day care of babies.
Child Rearing and Education.
Children are seldom alone in a system in which adults desire company
Workers spread rice on palm mats to dry in the midday sun. Filipinos
do not consider a meal complete without rice.
and do not understand the need for privacy. Children have no pressure to
become toilet trained or to learn to eat at the table. They are spoon fed
or eat from a parent's plate until the age of six. They must learn
respect for authority, obedience, and religious faith. Self-esteem is
fostered. A child's first birthday is celebrated with a party.
Filipinos regard education as the path to upward mobility. Ninety percent
of the population over ten years of age is literate. The Department of
Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) is the largest governmental
department. Approximately twelve million elementary school pupils and five
million secondary students attended school in 1999 and 2000. Education is
compulsory until age twelve. Statistics indicate that children from the
poorest 40 percent of the population do not attend school. Elementary
education is a six- secondary education is a four-year
program. Pre-schools and kindergartens are seldom available in public
schools but are in private schools. Children are grouped homogeneously by
ability. First grade students begin being taught in F English is
added after two months. In elementary and secondary schools, reading,
science, and mathematics are taught in English while values, social
studies, and health are taught in Filipino. Children learn some Filipino
and English words from the media. "Linga franca" is an
experimental approach in which students are taught in the native dialect
and Filipino for the first two years and English in the third grade. This
program came about as a response to concerns that English was being used
more than were the native languages.
Elementary school, secondary school, and college students are required to
wear uniforms. Girls wear pleated skirts and white blouses. Public school
pupils wear dark blue skirts. Each private school has its own color. Boys
wear white shirts and dark pants. Women teachers are given a government
allowance to purchase four uniforms to wear Monday through Thursday. Men
wear dark pants and a
a lightweight cotton shirt, or a polo shirt. Female teachers are
addressed as ma'am (pronounced "mum"). Male teachers
are addressed as sir. These titles are highly prized and are used by
teachers in addressing one another.
Class sizes range from twenty to more than fifty in public schools. The
goal is to keep class size below fifty. Pupils may have to share books and
desks. Schools may lack electricity and have dirt floors or be flooded in
the rainy season. The walls may not be painted. The Japanese, Chinese, and
Australians have provided new classrooms, scientific supplies, and teacher
training for the public schools. Private schools charge fees but have
class sizes. They have a reputation of providing a better education than
do the public schools.
Computers are not readily available in elementary or secondary schools
although DECS is stressing technology. President Estrada met with Bill
Gates of Microsoft to procure computers and software for use in the
Classrooms in both public and private schools have a picture of the Virgin
Mary and the president at the front of the room. Grottoes to the Virgin
Mary or a patron saint are found on school campuses. School days begin and
end with prayer.
The school year runs from June to March to avoid the hot months of April
and May. School starts at seven-thirty and ends at four-thirty with a
break of one and a half hours for lunch. No meals are served at the
school, although the parent-teacher association may run a stand that sells
snacks for break time.
Dropping out is a serious concern. In 1999 and 2000, the high school
dropout rate increased from 9 percent to 13 percent. The increase is
attributed to the need to provide care for younger siblings or to get a
job to enable the family to survive the high inflation and the currency
devaluation that followed the Asian financial crisis. The DECS has a
Non-Formal Education Division to meet the needs of out-of-school youth as
well as the needs of uneducated adults. Programs include adult literacy,
agriculture and farm training, occupational skills, and training in health
and nutrition. Programs for at-risk youth are being added at the high
school level. The Open High School System Act of 2000 is designed to
provide distance learning via television for youths and uneducated adults.
Higher Education.
A college degree is necessary to obtain positions that promise security
and advancement. Approximately two million students attend colleges and
universities. Each province has a state college system with several
locations. The University of the Philippines, located in Manila, is a
public university that is regarded as the best in the country. Private
colleges are found in the major municipalities. The University of Santo
Tomas in Manila is a private school that was established in 1611; it is
the oldest site of higher education in the country. English is the primary
language of instruction at the college level. Colleges and universities
have large enrollments for advanced degrees since a four year degree may
not be sufficient to work in the higher levels of government service.
People believe that it is one's duty to keep things operating
smoothly. It is very important not to lose face. Being corrected or
correcting another person in public is not considered acceptable behavior.
People want to grant all requests, and so they often say yes when they
mean no or maybe. Others understand when the request is not fulfilled
because saying no might have caused the individual to lose face. When one
is asked to join a family for a meal, the offer must be refused. If the
invitation is extended a second time, it is permissible to accept. Time
consciousness and time management are not important considerations. A
planned meeting may take place later, much later, or never.
Filipinos walk hand in hand or arm in arm with relatives and friends of
either sex as a sign of affection or friendship. Women are expected not to
cross their legs or drink alcohol in public. Shorts are not common wear
for women.
People pride themselves on hospitality. They readily go out of their way
to help visitors or take them to their destination. It is of the highest
importance to recognize the positions of others and use full titles and
full names when introducing or referring to people. Non-verbal language,
such as pointing to an object with one's lips, is a key element in
communication. One greets friends by lifting the eyebrows. A longer lift
can be used to ask a question.
Religious Beliefs.
The Philippines is the only Christian nation in Asia. More than 85
percent of the people are Roman Catholic. The rosary is said in the home
, just before the family retires for the night. Children are introduced to
the statue of "Mama Mary" at a very early age.
Protestant missionaries arrived in 1901 and followed the Catholic example
of establishing hospitals, clinics, and private schools. The Church of the
Latter Day Saints (Mormons) is currently the most active missionary group.
Sunni Muslims constitute the largest non-Christian group. They live in
Mindanao and the Sulu Islands but have migrated to other provinces. Muslim
provinces celebrate Islamic religious holidays as legal holidays. Mosques
are located in large cities throughout the country. In smaller
communities, Muslims gather in small buildings for services. Animism, a
belief that natural objects have souls, is the oldest religion in the
country, practiced by indigenous peoples in the mountains of Luzon.
A roundabout with a fountain sits between old buildings in Manila.
Some areas of the city were destroyed during World War II, when the
country was invaded by Japan and then liberated by the United
Freedom of religion is guaranteed by the constitution. The disagreement
between the Muslim population of the southern provinces and the federal
government is not so much about religion as it is about political goals.
Non-Catholics do not object to Catholic symbols or prayer in public
Each barangay has a patron saint. The saint's day is celebrated by
a fiesta that includes a religious ceremony. Large amounts of food are
served at each house. Friends and relatives from other barangays are
invited and go from house to house to enjoy the food. A talent show,
beauty contest, and dance are part of the fun. Carnival rides and bingo
games add to the festivities.
Religious Practitioners.
Religious leaders are powerful figures. Business and political leaders
court Cardinal Jaime Sin because of his influence with much of the
population. Local priest and ministers are so highly respected that
requests from them take on the power of mandates. A family considers
having a son or daughter with a religious career as a
high honor. Personal friendships with priests, ministers, and nuns are
prized. Clerics take an active role in the secular world. An example is
Brother Andrew Gonzales, the current secretary of DECS.
Faith healers cure illness by prayer or touch. "Psychic"
healers operate without using scalpels or drawing blood. The several
thousand healers are Christians. They believe that if they ask for a fee,
their power will disappear. Patients are generous with gifts because
healers are greatly respected.
Rituals and Holy Places.
The major rituals are customary Christian or Muslim practices. Sites
where miracles have taken place draw large crowds on Sundays and feast
days. Easter is the most important Christian observance. On Easter
weekend, the entire Christian area of the country is shut down from noon
on Maundy Thursday until the morning of Black Saturday. International
flights continue and hospitals are open, but national television
broadcasts, church services, and shops and restaurants are closed and
public transportation is sparse. People stay at home or go to church.
Special events take place on Good Friday. There are religious processions
such as a parade of the statues of saints throughout the community.
Death and the Afterlife.
A twenty-four-hour vigil is held at the deceased person's home,
and the body is escorted to the cemetery after the religious ceremony. The
tradition is for mourners to walk behind the coffin. A mausoleum is built
during the lifetime of the user. The size of the edifice indicates the
position of the builder.
Mourning is worn for six weeks after the death of a family member. It may
consists of a black pin worn on the blouse or shirt of the mourner or
black clothing. Mourning is put aside after one year. A meal or party is
provided for family members and close friends one year after the burial to
commemorate recognize the memory of the deceased.
All Saint's Day (1 November) is a national holiday to honor the
dead. Grave sites are cleared of debris and repaired. Families meet at the
cemetery and stay throughout the twenty-four hours. Candles and flowers
are placed on the graves. Food and memories are shared, and prayers are
offered for the souls of the dead. When a family member visits a grave
during the year, pebbles are placed on the grave to indicate that the
deceased has been remembered.
Medicine and Health Care
Life expectancy is seventy years for females and sixty-four years for
males. The Health Care Law of
Painted Jeepneys on a city street.
1995 provides citizens with basic health care at no cost through
subsidies. The working poor are given financial assistance when necessary.
Children receive inoculations at no cost. The World Health Organization
(WHO) declared the Philippines to be polio-free in 2000. It is the first
nation in the world to be recognized for the elimination of polio.
Regional public hospitals provide service to everyone. People who live far
away ride a bus for hours to reach the hospital. Funds for ambulances are
raised by lotteries within each barangay or are provided by congressmen
and are used only for the people who live in that area. Private hospitals
are considered superior to public hospitals. Paying patients are not
discharged from hospitals until the bill is paid in full. Patients have
(companions) who remain with them during the hospital stay. Kasamas
assist with nursing chores by giving baths, getting food trays, taking
samples to the nurses' station and questioning the doctor. A bed
but no food is provided for the kasama in the hospital room.
The infant mortality rate is 48.9 percent, and one-third of the children
are malnourished. Over 13 percent of preschool and elementary school
children are underweight. A government program provides nutritious food
for impoverished pupils at the midmorning break. This is only offered to
schools in the
poorest areas. National test scores are examined to see if improvement
has occurred. If the scores are better, the program is expanded.
The most prevalent health problem is "high blood"
(hypertension). One in ten persons over the age of fifteen has high blood
pressure. Tuberculosis is an The country has the
fourth highest mortality rate in the world from that disease. Malaria and
dengue fever are prevalent because there is no effective program for
mosquito control. The number of deaths attributed to dengue increased in
the late 1990s.
Herbal remedies are used alone or in conjunction with prescribed
medications. A dog bite treated with antibiotics and rabies shots also may
be treated with garlic applied to the puncture. The study of herbal
remedies is part of the school health curriculum. Many elementary schools
have herb gardens that are planted and cared for by the students.
Secular Celebrations
New Year's Day is more of a family holiday than Christmas. It is
combined with Rizal Day on 30 December to provide time for people to go
home to their province. Midnight on New Year's Eve brings an
outburst of firecrackers and gunfire from randomly aimed firearms.
Other national secular holidays are Fall of Bataan Day, an observation of
the Bataan Death March in 1942 on 9 April. Labor Day is celebrated on 1
May. Independence Day on 12 June celebrates freedom from Spanish rule. It
is celebrated with fiestas, parades, and fireworks. Sino-Filipinos
celebrate the Chinese New Year, which is not a national holiday, in
January or February. In Manila, fireworks and parades take place
throughout Chinatown. Muslims celebrate Islamic festivals.
Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts.
The government provides support for institutions such as the National
Museum in Manila. Libraries exists in colleges and universities. The best
collections are in Manila. Museums are located in provincial capitals and
in Manila. The Cultural Center of the Philippines in Manila is a center
for the performing arts that opened in 1970. It is a multibuilding complex
created under the direction of former first lady Imelda Marcos, who
encouraged musicians to enter the international community and receive
additional training. Nongovernmental organizations preserve the folk
heritage of the indigenous groups.
Literature.
Literature is based on the oral traditions of folklore, the influence of
the church and Spanish and American literature. Filipino written
literature became popular in the mid-nineteenth century as the middle
class became educated. The greatest historical literature evolved from the
independence movement. José Rizal electrified the country with his
novels. During the early years of American control, literature was written
in English. The English and American literature that was taught in the
schools was a factor in the kind of writing that was produced. Writing in
Filipino languages became more common in the late 1930s and during the
Japanese occupation. Literature is now written in both Filipino and
English. Textbooks contain national and world literature.
Graphic Arts.
The Filipino Academy of Art, established in 1821, shows early art
reflecting Spanish and religious themes. Juan Luna and Felix Hidalgo were
the first Filipino artists to win recognition in Europe at the end of the
nineteenth century. Contemporary artists use a variety of techniques and
mediums to reflect social and political life. Crafts reflect the national
culture. Each area of the country has specialties that range from the
batik cotton prints of the Muslim areas to the wood carvings of the
mountain provinces of Luzon. Baskets and mats are created from rattan.
Textiles are woven by hand in cooperatives, storefronts, and homes. Banana
and pineapple fiber cloth, cotton, and wool are woven into textiles.
Furniture and decorative items are carved. Silver and shell crafts also
are created
Sex and violence are major themes in films, which are often adaptations of
American screen productions. American films are popular and readily
available, and so high-quality Filipino films have been slow to develop.
Performance Arts.
Drama before Spanish colonization was of a religious nature and was
intended to persuade the deities to provide the necessities of life. The
Spanish used drama to introduce the Catholic religion. Filipino themes in
drama developed in the late nineteenth century as the independence
movement evolved. Current themes are nationalistic and reflect daily life.
Dance is a mixture of Filipino and Spanish cultures. Professional dance
troupes perform ballet, modern dance, and folk dance. Folk dances are
performed at meetings and conferences and reflect a strong Spanish
influence. Indigenous dances are used in historical pageants. An example
is a bamboo dance relating a story about a bird moving among the reeds.
People enjoy ballroom dancing for recreation.
Dance instructors are available at parties to teach the waltz and the
Music performance begins in the home and at school. Amateur performances
featuring song and dance occur at fiestas. Popular music tends to be
American. Guitars are man folk instruments such as
the nose flute also are constructed.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
The physical sciences focus on the needs of the country. Aquaculture, the
development of fish and shellfish farms in coastal areas, is a rapidly
growing field. Centuries of fishing and dynamiting fish have changed the
balance of nature. Hormonal research to stimulate the growth of fish and
shellfish is a priority. Control of red tide, an infestation that makes
shellfish unsafe to eat, is another area of concentration. Agricultural
research and research into volcano and earthquake control are other areas
of study. The development of geothermal and other energy sources is
ongoing. Other environmental research areas of importance are waste
resource management, water resource management, and forest management. The
social sciences are focused on the needs of the country with the primary
emphasis on resolving the problems of poverty and land reform.
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